THE  LIBRARY 


OF 


THE 


OF 


UNIVERSITY 
CALIFORNIA 

Education 


GIFT  OF 


F.   C,  Scharpf 


<M  • 


'^."WvV.1 


••  |^B 

K 


THE 


YOUNG  CHEMIST: 


A   BOOK   OF 


LABORATORY  WORK, 

FOR    BEGINNERS. 


BY 

JOHN   H.  APPLETON,  A.M., 

Professor  of  Chemistry  in  Brown  University. 


SECOND  EDITION. 


PHILADELPHIA 

COWPERTHWAIT    &    CO 
1880. 


(By  the  same  Author. 


COWPERTHWAIT   &   CO 


ALSO   PUBLISH 


AppLETON's  QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS. 

Sent  by  Mail  on  receipt  of  go  Cents. 


Copyright, 
JOHN  H.  APPLETON. 

1878. 


Education 


GIFT 


WBStcotT   &   THOMSON,  K-  STANLEY  HART 


SUreotyfitrs  and  Electrotype,  Philad*  »er'  PMada' 


PREFACE. 


in    the 


THE   purpose    of   this    little    book    is   to    aid   i 
instruction    of   pupils    in    chemistry.     The    method   em- 
ployed is  the  experimental  or  object  method. 

Every  experienced  teacher  has  remarked  the  won- 
derful ease  and  pleasure  with  which  beginners  in  chem- 
istry— when  they  are  allowed  to  perform  experiments — 
grasp  the  facts  and  principles  of  the  science.  It  has 
also  been  recognized  that  the  only  objections  to  the 
experimental  method  arise  from  the  greater  expenditure 
of  the  teacher's  time,  and  from  the  cost  of  supplies. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  little  book  removes  one  of 
these  objections;  and,  fortunately,  chemical  apparatus 
and  supplies  can  now  be  had  at  very  low  prices. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  characteristic  advan- 
tages of  the  book — 

First. — The  apparatus  described,  and  the  supplies  called 
for,  are  of  the  very  simplest  character. 

Second. — The  experiments  are  described  in  clear  and 
simple  language,  and  in  direct  form;  the  pupil  can 
hardly  fail  to  perform  them  successfully,  even  without 
special  aid  from  the  teacher. 

855 


PREFACE. 


Third. — Dangerous  experiments  have  been  excluded. 
(But,  of  course,  care  must  always  be  exercised  in 
experimenting.) 

^ 

Fourth. — The    chemical    elements    are    discussed    in   a 

scientific  order  which,  while    it  aids  the  memory,   does 
so  upon  correct  principles. 

Fifth. — Formulas  and  reactions  are  introduced  freely, 
so  that  the  student  learns  the  new  nomenclature  and 
new  notation  without  suspecting  it.  (But  a  systematic 
discussion  of  these  subjects  has  been  offered  for  pur- 
poses of  reference,  or  for  such  other  use  as  the  teacher 
may  judge  best  to  make  of  it.) 

It  may  also  be  added  that  this  book  is  not  an 
experiment.  The  first  edition  of  it  has  been  used  with 
great  success  by  many  professors  and  teachers  of  wise 
judgment  and  large  experience. 

The  author  hopes  that  in  its  improved  form  it  may 
be  found  to  possess  additional  usefulness. 

BROWN  UNIVERSITY,  October,  1878. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGH 

HINTS  TO  TEACHERS 7 

INTRODUCTION. 

Nomenclature  and  Notation  of  Chemistry II 

First  Section. — Elements  and  Compounds II 

Second  Section. — Names  and  Symbols 14 

Third  Section. — Systematic  Names  of  Compounds 17 

CHAPTER  I.— THE  NON-METALLIC  MONADS 25 

Hydrogen 26 

Fluorine 29 

Chlorine ~ 30 

Chlorohydric  acid 32 

Bromine 33 

Iodine 34 

CHAPTER  II.— THE  NON-METALLIC  DYADS 37 

Oxygen 38 

Sulphur 42 

Sulphuric  acid 43 

Sulphuretted-hydrogen 45 

Selenium  and  Tellurium 45 

CHAPTER  III.— THE  NON-METALLIC   TRIADS 46 

Boron 47 

Boracic  acid 47 

Nitrogen 48 

Compounds  of  Nitrogen  and  Hydrogen 48 

Ammonia-gas 49 

Compounds  of  Nitrogen  and  Oxygen 50 

Nitrogen  di-oxide 51 

Nitrogen  pentoxide 51 

Nitric  acid 51 

Phosphorus 54 

Arsenic 55 

Antimony 57 

1*  h 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

CHAPTER  IV.— THE  NON-METALLIC  TETRADS 59 

Carbon 60 

Compounds  of  Carbon  and  Hydrogen 61 

Ethylene f 62 

Compounds  of  Carbon,  Hydrogen,  and  Oxygen 62 

Compounds  of  Carbon  and  Oxygen 62 

Carbon  mon-oxide 62 

Carbon  di-oxide 63 

Silicon 64 

Titanium 65 

Tin 66 

CHAPTER  V.— THE  METALLIC   MONADS.... 67 

Silver 68 

Potassium 69 

Sodium 71 

Lithium 71 

CHAPTER  VI.— THE   METALLIC  DYADS 72 

First  Section.. 

Lead 73 

Barium 75 

Strontium 76 

Calcium 77 

Second  Section. 

Mercury..... 80 

Copper 82 

Magnesium 84 

Zinc  86 

Third  Section. 

Cobalt 89 

Nickel 90 

Iron 91 

Manganese 93 

Chromium 94 

(Aluminum) 96 

CHAPTER  VII.— THE  METALLIC  TRIADS 98 

Bismuth 99 

Gold...  100 

CHAPTER  VIII.— THE  METALLIC  TETRAD 101 

Platinum 101 

APPENDIX. 

List  of  Chemical  Supplies  Needed 103 

List  of  Apparatus  Needed 106 


HINTS  TO  TEACHERS. 


I.  PERFORM   slowly  several   experiments  before   the   class. 
Let  the  pupils  perform  the  same  experiments  (and  no  others), 
each  at  his  own  desk.     After  this  let  the  pupils  learn  carefully 
the  entire  description  of  the  experiments  so  performed. 

It  is  highly  desirable  to  have  the  pupils  learn  the  outline 
of  a  given  chapter,  and  recite  it  day  after  day,  until  the  work 
of  that  chapter  is  finished.  They  thus  discover  the  logical 
relation  which  binds  the  separate  experiments  into  one 
whole ;  they  also  discover  the  scientific  plan  of  the  work. 

II.  Use  extreme  caution  in  experimenting.     Be  careful  not 
to  vary  the  conditions  of  an  experiment,   as  stated  in  the 
book.     Be  careful  how  you  attempt  experiments  other  than 
those  described  in  this  book. 

Do  not  allow  pupils  to  approach  too  near  to  an  experiment 
in  progress. 

III.  Use  very  small  quantities  of  the  substances  prescribed. 

IV.  In  preparing  a  gas, 
the  most  convenient  appa- 
ratus is  a  side-neck  flask 
or  a  side-neck  test-tube. 

The  cuts  need  no  expla- 
nation. 


FIG.  i. — Evolving  a  gas  by  use  of  a 
side-neck  flask. 


FIG.  2. — Evolving  a  gas  by  use  of  a  side-neck 
test-tube. 

r 


THE    YOUNG  CHEMIST. 


V.  To  collect  a  gas  in  a  small  bell-glass,  use  a  lead-post. 
This  is  made  by  cutting  a  strip  of  lead  into  the  form  shown  at 
the  left,  in  Fig.  3,  and  folding  it  into  the  other  form  shown  in 
the  same  figure. 


FIG.  3.— The  lead-post  before  bending  into  shape,  and  after  bending. 

The  use  of  a  rubber  ring  in  attaching  a  test-tube  to  the  lead- 
post  is  apparent  upon  inspection  of  Fig.  4. 


FIG.  4. — Illustrating  the  preparation  of  gas  by  use  of  the  lead-post,  the  side-neck  test- 
tube,  and  the  wire  triangle. 

VI.  If  more  than  one  experiment  is  to  be  performed  with  a 
given  gas,  several  portions  of  gas  may  be  collected  in  several 
small  bottles;  the  gas  may  be  retained  a  short  time  in  the 


HINTS    TO    TEACHERS. 


bottles  by  covering  the  latter,  when   filled,   with  wet  pieces 
of  filter-paper. 

VII.  Instead  of  being  placed  alongside  of  a  beaker  or  casse- 
role, the  lead -post  may  be  placed   inside  of  a  water-pan  of 
granite-ironware,  or  other  suitable  ware. 

VIII.  As  a  support  for  apparatus,  a  wire  triangle  arranged 
on   screw-eyes  as  in   Fig.   4  is  very  useful    and  very  cheap. 
The  teacher's  own  ingenuity  will  suggest  a  variety  of  modifi- 
cations of  this  triangle,  so  as  to  suit  a  variety  of  purposes. 

IX.  As  a  support  or  prop  for  lamps,  etc.,  wooden  blocks, 
from  three  to  four  inches  square  and  from  one-half  to  one 
inch  thick,  are  extremely  serviceable.     In  Fig.  i  both  thick- 
nesses are  represented. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  NOMENCLATURE  AND  NOTATION 
OF  CHEMISTRY. 


OUTLINE   OF  THIS  CHAPTER. 

FIRST  SECTION. — Elements  and  Compounds. 

An  Element. — A  Compound. — A  mechanical  mixture. — List  of 
Elements  with  their  atomic  weights. 

SECOND  SECTION. — Nantes  and  Symbols. 

Names  of  Elements. — Literal,  graphic,  and  glyptic  symbols  of 
Elements. 

Names  of  Compounds. — Literal,  graphic,  and  glyptic  symbols  of 
Compounds. 

THIRD  SECTION. — Systematic  Names  of  Compounds. 

ist.  Names  of  Binaries.  —  Compound  Radicles.  —  Anhydrides. — 
Haloid  acids. — Haloid  salts. 

2d.  Names  of  Ternaries. — Acids. — Salts  (normal,  acid,  and  basic). — 
Graphic  symbols  of  ternary  acids  and  salts. 


FIRST   SECTION. 
ELEMENTS  AND  COMPOUNDS. 

1.  An  element  or  elementary  substance  is  a  form  or 
kind  of  matter  that  cannot,  by  any  known  means,  be 
decomposed  or  subdivided  into  parts  differing  from  itself. 


11 


12  THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 


For  example,  Sulphur  cannot  be  decomposed,  by  any  known  means, 
into  parts  differing  from  Sulphur. 

Also,  pure  Iron  cannot  be  decomposed,  by  any  known  means,  into  parts 
differing  from  Iron. 

Sulphur  is  an  element ;   Iron  is  an  element. 

2.  A  compound  is  formed  by  the  chemical  union  of 
elements.      A  compound   may  be   broken  up  or  decom- 
posed, by  chemical  means,  into  the  elements  of  which  it  is 
composed.     But  a  compound  cannot  be  decomposed,  by 
mere  mechanical  subdivision,  into  its  elements. 

For  example,  Sulphur  (S)  and  Iron  (Fe)  may  form  a  chemical  union. 
The  product  is  a  chemical  compound,  called  Ferrous  sulphide,  and  indi- 
cated by  the  symbol,  FeS.  This  compound  may  be  decomposed  chemi- 
cally into  Iron  and  Sulphur ;  but  by  no  mere  mechanical  means  can  we 
take  away  the  one  element  from  the  other,  when  they  are  combined 
chemically  into  a  compound.  Moreover,  the  compound,  formed  by  Iron 
and  Sulphur,  is  very  different  in  most  of  its  properties  from  Iron  and 
from  Sulphur. 

3.  A  mechanical  mixture  is  formed  when  two  sub- 
stances are  merely  intermingled,  without  chemical  union. 

For  example,  filings  of  Iron  and  powdered  Sulphur  may  be  inter- 
mingled to  form  a  mechanical  mixture.  But,  by  means  of  a  sieve  of 
proper  fineness,  the  Sulphur  may  be  entirely  sifted  out  from  the  Iron 
filings. 

4.  No   complete    list   of   mechanical  mixtures   can   be 
given.     The  number  of  such  possible   mixtures  appears 
to  be  infinite. 

5.  No    complete    list   of   chemical  compounds   can   be 
given.     We  do  not  know  that  there  is  any  limit  to  the 
number  of  them.      A  list  of  the  known  chemical  com- 
pounds would  be  very  large. 

6.  The  chemical  elements  are  far  less  numerous.     The 
total  number  is  about  sixty-four.     The  great  mass  of  our 
planet  is  made  up  of  only  thirteen  of  the  elements,  united 


INTR  OD  UCTION. 


in  various  compounds, 
lively  small  quantities. 


The  other  elements  exist  in  rela- 


TABLE  OF  THE  SIXTY- FOUR  ELEMENTS,  WITH  THEIR 
ATOMIC  WEIGHTS. 


Name.                  Symt 

,      Atomic 
°L     Weight. 

Name.                Symbol. 

Atomic 
Weight. 

Aluminum      Al 

27.3 
122. 
74.9 
i       136.8 
210. 
>        11. 
79.75 
111.6 
133. 
39.9 
11.97 
141.2 
35.37 
52.4 
58.6 
i         63. 
147. 
169. 
19.1 
i        69.8 
9. 
i       196.2 
1. 
113.4 
126.53 
196.7 
;         55.9 
\       139. 
5       206.4 
7.01 
g        23.94 
n       54.8 

Hg 
Mo 
Ni 
Nb 
N 
Os 
O 
Pd 
P 
Pt 
K 
Rh 
Rb 
Ru 
Se 
Si 
Ag 
Na 
Sr 
S 
Ta 
Te 
Tl 
Th 
Sn 
Ti 
W 
Ur 
Va 
Yt 
Zn 
Zr 

199.8 

95.6 
58.6 
94. 
14.01 
198.6 
15.96 
106.2 
30.96 
196.7 
39.04 
104.1 
85.2 
103.5 
78. 
28. 
107.66 
22.99 
87.2 
31.98 
„  182.0 
128. 
203.6 
231.5 
117.8 
48. 
184. 
240. 
51.2 
93. 
64.9 
90. 

\ntimony  1     Sb 

Molybdenum  
Nickel  

Nitrogen...'  
Osmium  

Boron             .              Be 

Bromine         •     .         Br 

Oxygen  

Palladium 

Caesium      Cs 

Phosphorus  

Calcium  Ca 

Carbon  1     C 

Potassium 

Rhodium 

Chlorine                        Cl 

Rubidium 

Chromium                    Cr 

Ruthenium 

Cobalt                  ...      Co 

Selenium 

Copper        Cu 

Silicon                  . 

Didvmium       D 

Silver 

Erbium  E 

Sodium 

Fluorine    Fl 

Strontium     

Gallium                         Gi 

Glucinum                     Gl 

Gold                             Ai 

Hvcirocren                     I-J 

Thallium 

Indium  .           ...      In 

Thorium  

Tin 

Iodine  I 

Indium  Ir 

Titanium  
Tungsten          ... 

Iron  Ft 

Lanthanum  LJ 

Uranium  

Lead                              PI 

Lithium        ,..      ...       L] 

Yttrium 

Magnesium  ...    .        M 

Zinc 

M  anganese  i     NI 

i  Zirconium  

14  THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


SECOND    SECTION. 
NOMENCLATURE  AND  NOTATION. 

7.  A  CHEMICAL  substance  may  be  designated  by  a  name, 
or  it  may  be  represented  more  in  brief  by  a  symbol. 

The  same  substance  may  properly  have  more  than  one 
name,  and  it  may  be  correctly  represented  by  more  than 
one  symbol. 

8.  A  system   of  chemical  nomenclature  and  notation 
aims  to  employ  names  and  symbols  which  shall  represent 
the    true    qualitative    and    quantitative    composition    of 
substances. 

Names  of  Elements. 

9.  No  special  system  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  ele- 
ments, but  it   is   customary,  (a)  to  allow  the   names  of 
elements  long  known,  to  remain  unchanged — e.g.,  Gold; 
(b)  to  derive  the  names  of  new  elements  from  some  well- 
marked  property  of  them — e.g.,  Chlorine,  a  greenish  gas, 
derives  its  name  from   chloros,  green ;    (c]  the  names   of 
newly  discovered  metals  are  made  to  terminate  in   um — 
e.g.,  Thallium. 

Symbols  of  Elements. 

10.  Literal  symbols  are  those  which  employ  letters. 
An  atom  of  an  elementary  substance  is  usually  indicated 
by  the  initial  (sometimes   with  the  addition   of  another 
letter)  of  its  native  or  of  its  Latin  name,  thus: 

C   indicates  one  atom  of  Carbon; 
Ca  "  "       Calcium ; 

Cd  "  "       Cadmium ;  ', 


INTRODUCTION.  15 


Ce  indicates  one  atom  of  Cerium; 

Cl  "  "      Chlorine; 

Co  "  "      Cobalt; 

Cr  "  "      Chromium; 

Cs  "  "      Csesium; 

Cu  "  "      Copper  (cuprum). 

11.  Graphic  symbols  are  those  which  employ  dia- 
grams. Thus,  Professor  Kekule  recommends  the  follow- 
ing symbols  — 

©  (ED  (EH)  (•  •  •  Q 


—  to  represent  monad,  dyad,  triad,  and  tetrad  atoms  or 
radicles  respectively. 

The  same  symbols  may  be  conveniently  simplified  to 
the  following  forms  : 


12.  Glyptic  symbols  are  those  which  employ  models, 
as  spheres,  cubes,  etc.     Sometimes  models  having  differ- 
ent colors  are  used,  so  as  to  suggest  the  properties  of  the 
substances  represented. 

Names  of  Compounds. 

13.  Most  chemical   compounds   have   more   than   one 
name.     Sometimes  the  same  compound  has  three  or  four 
different  names. 

There  may  be — 

(a)  A  name  strictly  descriptive  of  the  components ;  thus, 
the  compound  of  Hydrogen  and  Chlorine  (HC1)  is  called 
Hydric  chloride ; 

(&)  A  name  suggestive  of  some  property  of  the  sub- 
stance;  thus  the  compound  above  mentioned  (HC1)  is 
called  Chlorohydric  acid ; 


1 6  THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 

(c)  A  commercial  name ;  thus,  HC1  is  called,  in  com- 
merce, Muriatic  acid ; 

(d)  A   mineralogical  name;    thus,  the   compound   of 
Lead  and  Sulphur  (PbS),  is  called,  properly,  Plumbic  sul- 
phide ;    but  the  mineral  substance,  found  crystallized  in 
nature,  and  having  the  composition  PbS,  is  called  Galena ; 

(e)  A  more  or  less  arbitrary  name.     This  is  exemplified 
in  the  case  of  many  organic  compound  radicles ;  thus,  the 
compound  having   the    constitution   represented   by  the 
symbol  H4C  is  usually  called  Marsh-gas. 

Symbols  of  Compounds. 

14:.  Literal  Symbols. — The  literal  symbol  of  acorn- 
pound  is  formed  by  grouping  together  the  literal  symbols 
of  the  elements  composing  it.  It  is  customary  to  place 
the  symbol  of  the  most  electro-positive  substance  first, 
and  in  general  to  arrange  the  symbols  so  as  to  follow  the 
order  of  the  parts  of  the  name  of  the  compound.  But, 
where  no  special  effort  is  made  to  indicate  the  arrange- 
ment of  atoms  in  the  molecule,  the  formula  is  said  to  be 
empirical ;  thus,  HNO3  is  an  empirical  formula  for  Nitric 
acid.  Where  such  attempt  is  made,  the  formula  is  called 
rational ;  thus  the  rational  formula  of  Nitric  acid  is 
H— O— (N=O2). 

15.  Graphic  Symbols. — Of  course,  all  graphic  for- 
mulas are  rational  formulas ;  they  are  also  general  for- 
mulas. 

As  examples  of  the  Kekule  system,  Nitric  acid,  HNO3, 
is  represented  thus : 


6  i   t  i~t) 

• 

It  may  also  be  represented  thus :          r-n     r—i 


INTR  OD  UCTION.  I  / 


Water,    H2O,    thus,     ®®;    Mercuric   chloride,   HgCl2, 
thus,          >  ;    Mercurous  chloride,  Hg2Cl2,  thus, 


16.  Glyptic  Symbols.  —  These   are   models,  made   by 
joining  together  the  glyptic  symbols  of  elements. 


THIRD    SECTION. 

STRICTLY  SYSTEMATIC  NAMES  OF 
COMPOUNDS. 

1st.  Binaries. 

17.  Definition. — A  binary  is  a  compound  which  has 
but  two  kinds  of  atoms. 

Thus,        HC1,  Hydric  chloride,  is  a  binary; 
SO3,  Sulphuric  oxide,  is  a  binary. 

18.  Compound  Radicles. — Sometimes  the  term  binary 
is   extended   to   apply   to   a    union    of  two    compounds, 
called  compound   radicles,  which  play  the  parts  of  two 
elements. 

Thus  (NH4),  a  compound  radicle  called  Ammonium, 
and  (CN),  a  compound  radicle  called  Cyanogen,  may  unite 
to  form  the  compound  (NH4)(CN),  called  Ammonic  cya- 
nide, which  may  be  considered  a  binary. 

19.  Names.  —  In    case    of   binaries,   the    name    given 
involves  the  names  of  both  parts  of  the  binary.     But  the 
terminations  of  both  names  are  changed.     The  termina- 
tion of  the  second  name  (which  is  always  that  of  the  more 
electro-negative  substance)  is  always  changed  to  ide.   The 
termination  of  the  first  name  (which  is  always  that  of  the 
more  electro-positive  substance)  is  changed  to  ous  or  ic. 


1 8  THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 

according  to  the  equivalence  of  such  first  part  But 
otis  is  usually  employed  for  lower,  and  ic  for  higher, 
equivalences  : 

IV  VI 

Thus,  SO2  is  Sulphurous  oxide ;  and  SO3  is  Sulphuric 
oxide. 

20.  Prefixes. — Prefixes  are  sometimes  used.   They  may 
be  numeral,  as  Manganese  di-oxide  for  MnO2;   or  they 
may  be  general;  thus,  the  prefix  hypo  is  used  for  a  lower, 
and  the  prefix  per  (abbreviation  for  hyper)  is  used  for  a 
higher,  equivalence. 

21.  Anhydrides. — An  anhydride  is  a  substance — usu- 
ally a  binary — which,  by  combining  with  water,  or  some 
analogous  compound,   can  produce  a   ternary  called  an 
acid. 

Thus,  SO3,  Sulphuric  oxide,  is  also  called  Sulphuric 
anhydride,  because  it  can  combine  with  water  to  form  a 
ternary  acid — H2SO4,  Sulphuric  acid. 

Again,  SO2,  Sulphurous  oxide,  is  also  called  Sulphurous 
anhydride,  because  it  can  combine  with  water  to  form  a 
ternary  acid — H2SO3,  Sulphurous  acid. 

22.  Haloid  Acids. — Though  most  acids  are  ternaries, 
there  are  some  acids  that  are  binaries ;  as,  HC1,  Chloro- 
hydric  acid.     Such  acids  are  called  haloid  acids. 

23.  Haloid  Salts. — There  is  an  important  class  of  salts, 
called  haloid  salts,  the   members   of  which  are  binaries. 
They  are  formed  after  the  analogy  of  common  salt,  NaCl. 
KI,    Potassic    iodide,    and   KBr,    Potassic   bromide,    are 
examples.      They  are   formed  by  the    substitution   of  a 
metal  or  radicle  for  the  Hydrogen  of  certain  correspond- 
ing Haloid  acids,  such  as  HC1,  Chlorohydric  acid,,  and 
HI,  lodohydric  acid. 


INTRODUCTION.  1 9 

2d.  Ternaries. 

24.  Definition. — A  ternary  is  a   compound  of  three 
parts ;  the  first  and  third  parts  may  each  be  represented, 
according  to  circumstances,  either  by  single  atoms,  or  by 
groups  of  atoms — or  by  compound  radicles — without  any 
peculiar  restriction  as  to  equivalences.     The  second  part 
is  the  linking  part,  whence  it  cannot  be  a  monad;  it  is 
oftenest  one  or  more  atoms  of  Oxygen. 

The  principal  ternary  compounds  are  acids  and  salts. 

25.  Acids. — An   acid   is    a   compound   of   Hydrogen, 
such  that  the  Hydrogen  may  be  removed,  and  a  metal  or 
metals,  a  radicle  or  radicles,  may  be  substituted  in  its 
place,  thus  giving  rise  to  a  metallic  salt. 

The  general  formula  for  an  acid  is  H — D — R ;  in  which 
H  represents  Hydrogen ;  D  represents  the  linking  dyad, 
usually  Oxygen ;  R  represents  an  electro-negative  radicle 
(either  simple  or  compound). 

The  following  set  of  anhydrides  may  be  used  to  illus- 
trate the  foregoing  definition  : 

C12O,  Hypochlorous  anhydride; 

C12O3,  Chlorous  anhydride ; 

Cl  2  O  5 ,  Chloric  anhydride ; 

C12O7,  Perchloric  anhydride. 

The  following  reactions  illustrate  the  system  both  of 
forming  and  of  naming  acids : 

The  anhydrides  react  with  water  as  follows : 

C12O    -f  H,O  =  2(HC1O)    or  Hypochlorous  acid  (H— O— Cl) ; 
C12O3  -f  H2O  =  2(HC1O2)  or  Chlorous  acid  (H— O— CIO); 

C12O5  -f  H2O  =  2(HC1O3)  or  Chloric  acid  (H— O— Cl  O2) ; 

C12O7  +  H2O  =  2(HC1O4)  or  Perchloric  acid          (H— O— Cl  O3). 


2O  THE    YOUNG  CHEMIST. 

26.  Salts. — A  salt  is  a  ternary  linked  by  a  dyad.     The 

+  + 

general  formula  of  a  salt  is  R — D — R ;  in  which  R  rep- 
resents an  electro-positive  radicle  (either  simple  or  com- 
pound) ;  D  represents  the  linking  dyad,  usually  Oxygen 
(and  it  should  be  remembered  that  there  is  usually  one 
atom  of  linking  dyad  for  each  open  point  of  attraction  of 
the  metal  or  positive  radicle);  R  represents  an  electro- 
negative radicle,  which  may  be  either  simple  or  com- 
pound, but  is  usually  made  up  of  a  non-metal  combined 
with  saturating  oxygen  (or  with  whatever  dyad  may  be 
performing  the  linking  function). 

27.  Salts  may  be  viewed  as  formed  by  substitution  of  a 
metal,  or  other  electro-positive  radicle,  for  the  Hydrogen 
of  the  acid  from  which  the  salt  is  formed. 

Thus,  Potassium  may  be  substituted  for  the  Hydrogen 
in  the  above  acids,  and  may  give  rise  to  the  following 
salts : 

K  Cl  O,  Potassic  hypochlorite,  (K— O— Cl) ; 

K  Cl  O2,  Potassic  chlorite,  (K— O— Cl  O) ; 

K  Cl  O3,  Potassic  chlorate,  (K — O— C1O2); 

K  Cl  O4,  Potassic  perchlorate,  (K— O— Cl  O3). 

28.  From  the  foregoing  examples  it  will  be  seen  that 
in  naming  a  salt,  the  names  of  only  two  of  the  constit- 
uents are  usually  involved.     The  third  constituent  is  so 
often  Oxygen  that  the  name  of  this  element  is  understood. 
But,  if  the  linking  dyad  is  Sulphur,  its  name  is  expressed. 
The  two  constituents,  whose  names  are  always  expressed, 
are  the  metal,  and  the  non-metal  which  is  the  basis  of  the 
compound  radicle.     The  Latin  name  of  the  metal  is  often 
used,  and  it  is  made  to  terminate  in  ic  for  higher  and  in 
ous  for  lower  equivalences ;  the  name  of  the  non-metal  is 
made  to  terminate  in  ate  when  the  salt  is  formed  from  an 
ic  acid,  or  in  ite  when  the  salt  is  formed  from  an  ous  acid. 


INTR  OD  UCTION.  2 1 


Thus,  Ferrous  sulphate  (FeSO4)  is  formed  from  an  ic 
acid — that  is,  H2SO4,  or  Sulphuric  acid. 

Ferrous  sulphite  (FeSO3)  is  formed  from  an  ous  acid — 
that  is,  H2SO3,  or  Sulphurous  acid. 

The  following  formulas  illustrate  the  analogy  of  Sul- 
phur salts  to  ordinary  Oxygen  salts : 


H. 

K3  As  O4  is  Potassic  arsenate,  or,  in  full,  Potassic  oxy-arsenate. 
K3  As  S4  is  Potassic  sulpho-arsenate. 

Salts  may  be  acid,  normal,  or  basic. 

29.  Acid  salts. — They  are  called  acid  salts  when  only 
a  part  of  the  Hydrogen,  of  the  original  acid,  is  replaced 
— e.  g.,  Hydro-potassic  sulphate,  HK,SO4,  formed  from 
H2SO4.     Acid  salts  are  part  acid,  and  part  salt. 

30.  Normal  salts. — They  are  called  normal  salts  when 
all  the  Hydrogen,  of  the  original  acid,  is  replaced.    K2SO4, 
Potassic  sulphate,  is  a  normal  salt. 

31.  Basic  salts. — They  are  called  basic  salts,  after  the 
analogy  of  the  term  base,  which  was  formerly  applied  to 



hydrates,  such  as  PbO2H2,  Plumbic  hydrate,  Pb_ 

Now,  when   the   radicle    NO2  is    substituted   for  both 
atoms  of  H,  we  have  Pb~Q~^Q2,  or  Pb(NO3)2,  which  is 

the   normal  Plumbic  nitrate.     When  the  radicle,  NO2,  is 
substituted  for  only  one  atom  of  Hydrogen,  we  have  the 

product   Pb~Q~^°2,  or  Pb(NO3HO),  a  basic  salt,  called 

Plumbic  nitro-hydrate. 

Basic  salts  are  part  base,  and  part  salt. 


22  THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 


Symbols  of  Acids  and  Salts. 

32.  Literal  Symbols. — The    manner   of   constructing 
literal  symbols  is  apparent  from  the  foregoing  discussion. 

33.  Graphic  Symbols. — A  simple  and  useful  method 
of  representing  acids  is  as  follows : 

HN03  H2S04  H3P04  H4Si04 

•  it  Hi  1 1 1 1 

L_  li_  III  Illl 

Of  course  these  diagrams  represent,  in  general,  acids 
having,  respectively,  one,  two,  three,  four  atoms  of  re- 
placeable hydrogen,  and  one,  two,  three,  four  atoms  of 
linking  oxygen,  and  attached  to  suitable  electro-negative 
radicles. 

They  also  represent,  in  general,  the  appropriate  salts 
formed  from  the  acids  mentioned — the  only  restriction 
being  that  in  the  four  examples  given  in  the  above  para- 
graph the  electro-positive  constituents  must  be  monads. 
But,  of  course,  positive  elements  or  radicles  of  higher 
equivalences  may  be  indicated  by  using  proper  symbols. 

Thus,  the  diagrams  on  the  opposite  page  represent — by 
the  simple  combination  of  symbols  similar  to  those  indi- 
cated in  paragraphs  15  and  33 — a  large  number  of  the 
possible  salts  formed  by  such  acids  with  monad,  dyad, 
triad,  and  tetrad  metals  or  positive  radicles. 

34.  In  connection  M'ith  page  23,  it  may  be  said  that  in  drawing  dia- 
grams it  is  desirable  to    employ   continually  the    same  plan.      The  fol- 
lowing principles  are  recommended.      Let  the  diagram?  of  ternary  salts 
take  the  form  of  the   letter   L,  so  far  as  is  practicable;    let  the  linking 
dyad  be  always  represented  by  vertical  (or  up-and-down)  strokes;  let  the 
acid  radicle  be  represented  by  horizontal  (or  right-and-left)  strokes;  let  the 
metals  or  positive  radicles  be  represented  at  the  top. 

These  diagrams  assist  the  student  to  comprehend  and  to  remember  for- 
mulas ;  and  they  cannot  be  expected  to  do  more. 


INTRODUCTION. 


24  THE   YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


Mules  for  Writing  Chemical  Equations. 


RULE  I.— As  the  first  member,  write  the  symbol 
of  one  molecule  of  each  substance  taking  part  in 
the  reaction. 

MULE  II.— As  the  second  member,  write  the  sym- 
bol of  one  molecule  of  each  substance  observed,  or 
known  to  be  produced  during  the  experiment. 

MULE  III. — Correct  the  second  member f  if  neces- 
sary, by  increasing  the  number  of  molecules  so  as  to 
exhaust  the  supply  of  elements  in  the  first  member. 

RULE  IV.— Correct  the  first  member,  if  necessary, 

by  increasing  the  number  of  molecules  absolutely 
demanded  by  the  substances  formed  in  the  second 
member. 

MULE  V.— Cancel  on  both  sides  of  the  equation- 
beginning  with  the  first  member — all  those  elements 
that  are  used  in  both  members. 

MULE  VI.— See  if  any  elements  are  left  over,  after 
the  cancellation  required  by  Rule  V.  If  there  are 
such,  combine  them  in  accordance  with  their  known 
chemical  affinities. 


CHAPTER    I. 
THE  NON-METALLIC  MONADS. 

Hydrogen  and  Fluorine; 
Chlorine,  Bromine,  and  Iodine. 


OUTLINE    OF   THE    CHAPTER. 
Hydrogen. 

Its  distribution  in  nature,  and  in  the  arts. 

Its  preparation  ;  by  Potassium ;  by  Sodium ;  by  Zinc. 

When  it  burns  it  forms  Water-vapor,  H  2  O. 

Fluorine. 

Its  distribution. — It  etches  glass. 

Chlorine. 

Its  distribution  in  common  salt. 

Its  preparation  from  Chlorohydric  acid  with  Manganese  di-oxide. 
It  is  a  bleaching  agent  (because  of  its  affinity  for  Hydrogen). 
It  forms  metallic  chlorides. 

CMorohytlric   Add. 

Its  preparation  and  properties. 

Bromine  and  Iodine. 

Distribution. — Preparation.— Properties. 


THE  NON-METALLIC  MONADS. 

35.  Hydrogen  is  adopted  as  a  monad.  In  other  cases 
a  monad  is  an  element,  that — atom  for  atom — -can  unite 
with,  or  take  the  place  of,  Hydrogen. 


25 


26 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


36.  The 

non-metallic  monads  are  the  following  : 

Name. 

Symbol. 

Ordinary  condition. 

Color. 

SK3S&. 

Hydrogen, 

H, 

gas, 

none, 

1. 

Fluorine, 

Fl. 

Cl, 
Br, 
I, 

gas, 
liquid, 
solid, 

green, 
orange-  red, 
black, 

19. 

35.5 
80. 
127. 

Chlorine, 
Bromine, 
Iodine, 

Hydrogen. 

37.  The  principal  natural  form  is  in  Water,  H2O. 
Many  artificial  compounds  contain  it;   thus  all  acids 
contain  it. 


Examples.— Chlorohyddc  acid, 
Sulphuric  acid, 
Nitric  acid, 


HC1. 
H2S04. 

H  N  O3 


FIG   5  — Forms  of  Water  crystallized  (as  Snow). 

38.  Potassium  liberates  Hydrogen.     Both  take  fire. 

E&peritnent. — Place  a  piece  of  Potassium  upon  dry  filter  paper; 
whittle  off  the  surface  and  lay  the  chips  aside ;  throw  a  small  piece  of  the 
clean  metal  upon  water  in  a  beaker.  Quickly  cover  the  beaker  with  a 
piece  of  glass,  or  even  of  paper. 

The  reaction  is, 

K2     +     2H20     =     2KOH     +     H.,. 


THE   NON-METALLIC  MONADS. 


The  K  O  H  (Potassic  oxy-hydrate,  or  simply  Potassic  hydrate)  dissolves 
in  the  water;  the  Hydrogen  burns 
on    the    surface    of  the  globule  of 
metal ;  the  metal  also  burns.   Thus  : 

Burning  of  Hydrogen. 
H2     -f-     O     =     H2O. 

Burning  of  Potassium. 
K2     +     O     =  .  K20. 

iPotassic  oxide.) 

39.  Sodium  liberates  Hy- 
drogen from  cold  water; 
neither  of  the  elements  FlG"  6-~P°taKssiT burninf by combining 

with  the  Oxygen  of  water. 

takes  fire.  ^ 

Experiment. — Take  a  piece  of  Sodium;  whittle  off  the  surface  and 
lay  the  chips  aside;  throw  a  fragment  on  water  in  a  beaker.  Quickly 
cover  the  beaker  with  a  piece  of  glass,  or  even  of  paper.  The  metal  acts 
thus: 

Na2     4-     2H2O     =     2  Na  O  H     -f     H2. 


(Na  O  H  is  Sodic  hydrate;  it  dissolves  in  the  water.     The  Hydrogen 
escapes,  but  does  not  burn.) 

40.  Sodium    takes    fire   on   hot   water;    the    liberated 

Hydrogen    also   burns. 

I 

Experiment. — Try  Experiment  39,  using  hot  water;  the  hot  water 
makes  the  reaction  so  violent  that 
sufficient  heat  is  afforded  to  set  tin 
fire  both  Hydrogen  and  Sodium. 
The  latter  burns  with  an  orange 
flame. 

Burning  of  Hydrogen. 


Burning  of  Sodium. 

Na2     -f     O     ==     Na,0. 

(Sod; 


m  burning  on  hot  water. 


28 


THE    YOUNG  CHEMIST. 


41.  Sodium,  if  kept  in  one  place,  on  cold  water,  takes 
fire. 

Experiment. — Trim  a  piece  of  Sodium  as  if  for  Experiment  39. 
Take  a  covered  beaker  of  cold  water;  float  a  piece  of  filter-paper  on  the 
water ;  throw  a  fragment  of  Sodium  upon  the  wet  paper.  The  wet  paper 
usually  keeps  the  Sodium  in  one  place,  so  that  the  heat  of  the  reaction  is 
retained  there ;  the  heat  thus  becomes  sufficient  to  set  on  fire  both  Sodium 
and  Hydrogen. 

42.  Hydrogen,  liberated  from  Water,  may  be  collected. 

Experiment. — Fill  a  large  test-tube  full  of  water ;  cover  it  with  a 
bit  of  paper ;  invert  it  in  the  water-pan.  Trim  a  piece  of  Sodium ;  take 


FIG.  8. — Collecting  Hydrogen,  evolved  from  Water  by  Sodium. 

it  with  tweezers  ;  dexterously.put  it  under  the  mouth  of  the  test-tube.  The 
Sodium  will  rise  in  the  tube,  evolving  Hydrogen  rapidly.  When  the  reac- 
tion ceases,  stop  the  tube  with  the  thumb,  hold  it  with  its  mouth  up,  and 
try  the  gas  with  a  lighted  match.  It  burns,  forming  Water  vapor,  H2  O. 


43.  Zinc    liberates     Hydrogen    from     Sulphuric    acid 
(H2S04). 


Fill  a  small  beaker  one-fourth  full  of  dilute  Sul- 
phuric acid  ;  drop  in  a  few  strips  of  Zinc  ;  cover  the  beaker  with  a  paper 
having  a  half-inch  hole  in  it;  hold  a  lighted  match  to  the  Hydrogen  gas, 
escaping  at  the  opening. 

Zn     -f     H2  SO4     ==     H2     -f     Zn  SO4       (Zinc  Sulphate). 


THE   NON-METALLIC  MOXADS. 


29 


The  Hydrogen  unites  with  Oxygen  of  the  air,  and  so  gives  rise  to  a 
slight  explosion. 


H 


+     O     =     H2  O     (Water  vapor). 


Allow  the  liquid  in  the  beaker  to  remain  on  the  Zinc  for  twenty-four  hours. 

44.  Zinc    and    Sulphuric    acid   form     Zinc    sulphate 

(ZnSO4). 

E.rpei'inieilt.  —  After  the  lapse  of  twenty-four  hours  —  as  required  by 
Experiment  43  —  the  solution  usually  contains  a  network  of  crystals  of  Zinc 
sulphate.  If  these  crystals  fail  to  appear,  repeat  Experiment  43,  using 
more  Zinc  than  at  the  previous  trial. 

45.  Hydrogen  liberated  from  Sulphuric  acid  (H2SO4) 
may  be  collected. 


Experiment.  —  Fill  a  saucer  half-full 
of  dilute  Sulphuric  acid.  Also,  fill  a  test- 
tube  full  of*  the  same,  and  invert  it,  while 
full,  into  the  saucer.  Under  the  mouth  of 
the  tube  slip  a  fragment  of  Zinc  and  a  frag- 
ment of  Platinum  in  contact  with  it.  Hy- 
drogen collects  in  the  test-tube.  Try  it  with 
a  lighted  taper. 


Fluorine,  Fl. 

46.  Distribution  of  Fluorine. 

The  most  common  natural  form 
of  Fluorine  is  the  mineral  called 
Fluor-spar.  It  is  Calcic  fluoride 
(CaFl2). 

Of  the  element  Fluorine  but 
little  is  known;  it  corrodes  glass 
very  violently. 

The  principal  commercial  form 

of  Fluorine  is  Fluohydric  acid  (HF1).     It  is   of  itself  a 
gas,  but   its    solution   in  water  is   kept  in    gutta-percha 

bottles,  and  is  sold  in  that  form. 
s* 


FIG.  9. — Hydrogen  burning. 


30  THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 

47.  Fluohydric  acid  (HF1)  attacks  glass. 

Experiment.  —  Powder  some  Fluor-spar;  place  it  in  a  test-tube; 
add  some  concentrated  Sulphuric  acid,  and  warm  the  mixture.  Fluohydric 
acid  is  liberated  as  a  gas. 

CaFl2     -f     H2SO4     =     2HF1     -f     CaSO4     (Calcic  sulphate). 

The  Fluohydric  acid  immediately  attacks  the  glass,  corroding  and 
roughening  its  surface. 

48.  Fluohydric  acid  may  be  used  for  etching  glass. 


.  —  Coat  a  slip  of  glass  with  beeswax  over    a  gentle 
flame.     Scratch  your  initials  through  the  beeswax  to  the  glass. 

Powder  some  Fluor-spar  ;  place 
it  in  a  lead  saucer;  add  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  Oil  of  vit- 
riol (H2SO4)  ;  place  the  glass 
slip  on  the  top  of  the  saucer,  and 
let  the  whole  stand  twenty-four 
hours. 

Take  off  the  glass  ;  melt  off  as 
FIG.  io.—  Etching  glass  by  means  of  gaseous 

Fluohydric  acid.  much  wax  as  you  can;  remove 

the  rest  with  Turpentine.     The 
initials  should  be  engraved  in  the  glass  by  this  process. 

SiO2     +     4HF1     =     SiFl4     -f     aH2O. 

(Of  the  glass  .  )  (  Gaseous  .  ) 


Chlorine,  Cl. 

49.  Distribution  of  Chlorine. 

In  nature,  Chlorine  is  never  found  free;  it  oftenest 
occurs  in  common  salt  (NaCl,  called  Sodic  chloride). 
The  salt  is  found  in  solid  deposits,  and  in  the  brine  of  the 
ocean  and  of  mineral  springs. 

In  the  arts,  Chlorine  is  largely  used  in  Bleaching- 
^owder,  also  called  Chloride  of  lime. 


THE   NON-METALLIC  MONADS. 


50.  Preparation  of  Chlorine. 

Experiment.  —  Prepare  Chlorine  as  follows.  Take  a  deep  test-tube; 
place  in  it  some  powdered  Manganese  di-oxide  (MnO2,  also  called  Black 
oxide  of  manganese).  Add  some  concentrated  Chlorohydric  acid,  and 
gently  warm  it  for  a  few  minutes.  Now  place  a  piece  of  white  paper 
behind  the  tube,  and  see  if  you  cannot  distinguish  the  greenish  color  of 
the  gas  (and  its  choking  odor). 


The  Chlorine  is  formed  thus  : 
Mn02     -f     4HC1     =     C12 


2H2O     +     MnCl2. 

(Manganous  chloride.) 


The  gas  is  more  than  twice  as  heavy  as  air,  and  it  remains  in  the  tube 
for  some  time. 

51.  Chlorine  is  a  bleaching  agent,  and  is  used  as  such, 
for  cotton  and  linen  goods. 

Experiment. — Take  two  small  beakers ;  into  one  put  some  dilute 
Sulphuric  acid;    into  the  other  put  some    Bleaching-powder   and  water. 


FIG.  ii. — Removing  the  color  from  calico  by  means  of  Bleaching-powder. 


Now  pass  a  piece  of  chocolate  calico  from  one  solution  to  the  other,  sev- 
eral times ;  finally  wash  the  cloth  in  a  basin  of  water.  The  Sulphuric  acid 
should  liberate  Chlorine  from  the  Bleaching-powder,  and  the  Chlorine 
should  partly  destroy  the  color. 


Oo  +  CaCl2]    f 

( B'eachmg-powckr.  i 


2CaSO4 


32  THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 

52.  Chlorohydric   acid   precipitates  Silver  as  Argentic 
chloride  .(AgCl). 

Experiment. — To  a  solution  of  Argentic  nitrate  (AgNO3),  add  a 
few  drops  of  dilute  Chlorohydric  acid.     A  white  precipitate  of  Argentic 
chloride   appears. 
• 

HC1     +     AgNO3  AgCl     -|-     HNO3. 

53.  Common  salt  precipitates  silver  as  Argentic  chlo- 
ride (AgCl). 

Experiment. — To  a  solution  of  Argentic  nitrate,  add  a  dilute  solu- 
tion of  common  salt  (Sodic  chloride,  NaCl).  A  white  precipitate  of 
Argentic  chloride  appears. 

NaCl     +     AgN03     =     AgCl     '+     NaNO3. 

(Sodic  nitrate.) 

54.  Sunlight  decomposes  Argentic  chloride,  and  black- 
ens it. 

Experiment. — Filter  the  product  of  the  preceding  experiment,  and 
expose  the  white  precipitate  to  the  sunlight  for  twelve  hours.  The  sun- 
light should  decompose  it  and  turn  it  violet,  and  finally  black. 

(It  is  Argentic  chloride,  on  the  surface  of  the  paper  of  a  photographic 
"proof,"  that  becomes  black,  by  exposure  to  sunlight.) 


Chlorohydric  Acid,  H  Cl. 

55.  Preparation  of  Chlorohydric  acid. 

Experiment. — Place  a  little  common  salt  (Na  Cl)  in  a  small  retort; 
to  it,  add  enough  concentrated  Sulphuric  acid  to  make  a  thin  paste;  con- 
nect the  neck  of  the  retort  with  a  clean  test-tube  containing  a  few  drops 
of  water.  Then  gently  heat  the  retort;  Chlorohydric  acid  (H  Cl)  will  be 
formed,  and  will  distill  from  the  retort,  and  condense  in  the  receiver.  Re- 
serve the  acid  for  examination,  as  described  in  paragraph  56. 

Na  Cl     +     H2  S  O4  H  Na  S  04     -f-     H  Cl. 

(Hydro-sodic  s.ulphate.) 


THE   NON-METALLIC  MONADS. 


33 


FIG.  12. — Preparation  of  Chlorohydric  acid. 


56.  Three  tests  for  Chlorohydric  acid. 

Experiment. — Examine,  by  three  tests,  the  small  amount  of  Chloro- 
hydric acid  formed  : 

(a)  Take  a  drop  on  a  glass  rod,  and  apply  it  to  blue  litmus-paper.     It 
should  turn  the  paper  red. 

(b)  Touch  a  minute  drop  to  the  tongue,  and  observe  the  sour  taste. 

(c)  Touch  a  drop  to  a  solution  of  Argentic  nitrate,  in  a  test-tube,  and 
observe  the  white  precipitate  of  Argentic  chloride  formed. 


Bromine,  Br. 

57.  Distribution  of  Bromine. 

In  nature,  Bromine  is  comparatively  rare.  It  is  never 
found  free.  In  sea-water  and  in  saline  springs,  it  occurs  as 
a  Bromide  of  certain  metals. 

In  the  arts,  it  is  known  both  as  Bromine  and  as  Potassic 
bromide  (K  Br,  also  called  Bromide  of  potassium). 


34  THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 

58.  Preparation  of  Bromine. 


.  —  In  a  deep  test-tube,  place  some  Manganese  di-oxide 
and  some  Potassic  bromide.  Add  a  little  water  to  dissolve  the  latter  sub- 
stance. Next,  add  some  Chlorohydric  acid.  Now  heat  the  whole,  gently. 
Reddish  fumes,  and  the  choking  odor  of  Bromine,  should  appear. 

2KBr  -f  MnO2  -f  4  H  Cl  =  Br2  -f  2H2O  -f  2  KC1  -j-  MnCl2. 

(Manganous  chloride.) 

59.  Potassic  bromide  precipitates  Silver  as  Argentic 
bromide;  the  product  blackens  in  sunlight. 

Experiment.  —  To  a  solution  of  Argentic  nitrate,  add  a  few  drops  of 
solution  of  Potassic  bromide.  A  yellowish-white  precipitate  of  Argentic 
bromide  should  appear. 

K  Br     +     Ag  N  O3     =     Ag  Br     -f     K  N  O3. 

Filter,  and  expose  the  precipitate  to  sunlight,  for  twelve  hours.  It 
should  blacken,  as  Argentic  chloride  did.  (Experiment  54.) 


»  Iodine,  I. 

60.  Distribution  of  Iodine. 

In  nature,  Iodine  is  comparatively  rare.  It  is  never 
found  free.  In  sea-water  and  in  saline  springs,  it  occurs 
as  an  Iodide  of  certain  metals. 

In  the  arts,  it  is  known  both  as  Iodine  and  as  Potassic 
iodide  (KI,  also  called  Iodide  of  potassium). 

61.  Preparation  of  Iodine. 

Experiment. — In  a  deep  test-tube,  place  some  Manganese  di-oxide 
and  some  Potassic  iodide.  Add  a  little  water  to  dissolve  the  latter  sub- 
stance. Now  add  some  Chlorohydric  acid,  and  heat  the  mixture.  A  violet 
vapor  of  Iodine  should  arise,  and  should  form — in  some  part  of  the  tube — 
a  black  deposit  of  solid  Iodine. 

2  K  I  -f  Mn  02  -f  4  H  Cl  ==  I2  -f  2  H2  O  +  *  K  Cl  +  Mn  C12. 


THE  NON-METALLIC  MONADS. 


35 


62.  Iodine,  when  heated,  forms  a  violet  vapor  which 
condenses  to  a  black  solid. 

Experiment. — H*eat  some  fragments  of  Iodine  in  a  clean  test-tube. 
Observe  the  heavy  violet  vapors  and  the  black  sublimate  or  deposit. 


FIG.  13. — Subliming  Iodine. 

63.  Iodine  dissolves  in  alcohol ;  but  it  does  not  dissolve 
well  in  water,  unless  Potassic  iodide  is  present. 

Experiment. — Take  three  clean  beakers,  and  place  them  upon  a 
white  surface. 

(a)  To  the  first,  add  a  little  water. 

(b)  To  the  second,  add  alcohol. 

(c)  To  the  third,  add  a  solution  of  Fotassic  iodide  in  water. 

To  each,  add  a  few  fragments  of  solid  Iodine,  and  observe  the  dif- 
ferent rates  of  solution  of  the  Iodine. 

Save  all  three  for  the  next  Experiment. 

Under   proper    conditions,   Starch    (C6H10O5)  is   a 
lelicate  test  for  free  Iodine,  but  not  for  combined 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


Experiment. — Boil  a  single  fragment  of  Starch,  in  a  tube  half-full 
of  water;  fill  up  with  cold  water;  divide  this  liquid  into  four  parts;  to 
three  of  them  add  respectively  (#),  (£),  and  (c]  of  Experiment  63.  The 
difference  in  the  amount  of  blue  color  produced,  shows  a  difference  in  the 
amount  of  free  Iodine  dissolved. 

Now  dissolve  a  fragment  of  Potassic  iodide  in  water,  and  add  it  to 
the  fourth  portion  of  starch-water.  It  should  afford  no  change  of  color. 


65.  Potassic  iodide  precipi- 
tates Silver  as  Argentic  iodide; 
it  blackens  in  sunlight. 

Experiment . — To  a  solution  of 
Argentic  nitrate,  add  a  few  drops  of 
solution  of  Potassic  iodide.  A  yellow- 
ish precipitate  of  Argentic  iodide  should 
appear. 


K I  +  Ag  N  O3  =  Ag  I  +  K  N  O3. 

FIG.  14. — A  precipitate  of  Argentic 
iodide. 

Filter,  and  expose  the  precipitate  to 

sunlight  for  twelve  hours.      It  should  blacken,  as  the  Argentic  chloride 
and  Argentic  bromide  did.     (Experiments  54  and  59.) 


CHAPTER    II. 
THE    NON-METALLIC    DYADS. 

Oxygen; 
Sulphur,  Selenium,  and  Tellurium. 


OUTLINE    OF   THE   CHAPTER. 
Oxygen. 

Distribution  (most  abundant  element  of  our  planet) ; 
Preparation;  from  Mercuric  oxide  (Hg  O) ; 

from  KC1O3,  mixed  with  MnO,. 

It  is  an  energetic  supporter  of  combustion. 

Sulphur. 

Distribution;  preparation  from  Pyrites; 
Its  properties,  shown  by  heating ; 

by  dissolving ; 

by  burning. 

Sulphuric  Add. 

Heats  water ;  reddens  litmus ; 
Precipitates  PbSO4,  by  dilution; 
Chars  sugar,  starch,  paper ; 
Dissolves  indigo. 

Sulphuretted  Hydrogen. 

Preparation  ;  blackens  Lead  salts. 

Selenium  and  Tellurium  are  rare. 

4  37 


THE   YOUNG  CHEMIST. 


THE  NON- METALLIC  DYADS. 

66.  These  are  the  following : 


Name. 

Symbol.         < 

Ordinary  condition 

.             Color. 

Approximate 
Atomic  "weight. 

Oxygen, 

o, 

gas, 

none, 

16. 

Sulphur, 

s, 

solid, 

yellow, 

32. 

Selenium, 

Se, 

solid, 

black, 

78. 

Tellurium, 

Te, 

solid, 

white, 

128. 

Oxygen,   O. 

67.  Oxygen  is  the  most  abundant  element  in  the  earth. 
It  makes  up  one-half,  by  weight,  of  our  entire  planet.  It 
is  also  very  widely  distributed. 


FIG.  15. — Preparation  of  Oxygen  from  Mercuric  oxide. 

It  therefore  may  be  said  to  be  found  in  the  majority 
of  substances  known. 


THE   NON-METALLIC  DYADS. 


39 


68.  The  discoverer  of  Oxygen,  Dr.  Priestley,  prepared 
the  gas  by  heating  Mercuric  oxide  (HgO). 

Experiment. — Arrange  a  test-tube  as  a  bell-glass  of  water,  in  the 
water-pan.  Put  an  inch  of  Red  oxide  of  mercury  (Mercuric  oxide, 
Hg  O)  into  a  fitted  8-inch  combustion  tube,  or  one  with  a  side-neck.  In 
either  case,  the  combustion  tube  must  be  of  veiy  hard  glass.  Heat  the 
Mercuric  oxide  carefully,  and  conduct  the  Oxygen  gas  evolved,  into  the 
little  bell-glass.  Try  the  gas  in  the  bell,  by  a  wax  taper  which  has  a  spark 
on  it ;  the  gas  should  relight  the  taper,  and  the  taper  should  burn  with  un- 
usual brilliancy. 

2  Hg  O     heated     =     2  Hg  -f     O2. 


FIG.  16. — Preparation  of  Oxygen  from  Mercuric  oxide. 

69.  Oxygen  is  best  prepared  from  Potassic  chlorate, 
mixed  with  Manganese  di-oxide. 

Experiment. — Arrange  a  test-tube  bell  in  the  water-pan.  In  a 
small  glass  retort,  place  about  a  teaspoonful  of  a  mixture  of  about  one  part 
of  Manganese  di-oxide,  and  three  parts  of  Potassic  chlorate.  Now  heat 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


the  mixture,  and — after  some  of  the  atmospheric  air  has  expanded  and 
passed  out  of  the  retort — collect  the  Oxygen  gas  in  four  small  bell-glasses. 
(A  convenient  method  is  to  collect  the  gas  in  small,  wide-mouth  bottles. 
As  each  bottle  is  filled  and  set  aside,  cover  it  with  a  piece  of  wet  filter- 
paper.  Reserve  the  gas  for  the  following  experiments:  70,  71,  72,  73.) 


FIG.  17. — Preparation  of  Oxygen  from  a  mixture  of  Potassic  chlorate  and 
Manganese  di-oxide. 


The  chemical  change  may  be  expressed  as  follows : 

KC1O3     heated     =     K  Cl     +     O3. 

The  Manganese  di-oxide  undergoes  no  chemical  change 
in  the  experiment  —  indeed,  other  substances  may  be 
substituted  for  it.  It  serves,  mainly,  to  equalize  the 
application  of  the  heat,  and  so  to  prevent  the  explosive 
decomposition  of  the  whole  of  the  Potassic  chlorate  at 
once. 


70.  Oxygen  stimulates  the  combustion  of  a  candle. 

Experiment.  —  Try  one  of  the  jars  of  Oxygen  by  a  taper  having 
only  a  spark  upon  it;  the  gas  should  promptly  relight  the  taper.  (See 
Experiment  68.) 


THE    NON-METALLIC  DYADS. 


71.  Sulphur  burns 
flame.  It  forms  a 
di-oxide  (SO2). 


in    Oxygen  with   a  brilliant  violet 
choking    gas,    called    Sulphurous 


FIG.  18. — A  candle  burning  in  Oxygen. 


Experiment.— Take  a  frag- 
ment of  black-board  crayon ;  hol- 
low it,  at  one  end,  into  a  little 
cup;  tie  a  piece  of  wire  to  the 
cup.  In  the  cup  place  a  frag- 
ment of  Sulphur.  After  setting 
the  Sulphur  on  fire,  immerse  it 
in  a  small  jar  of  Oxygen  gas. 
The  Sulphur  burns  with  greatly 
increased  brilliancv. 


72.  Charcoal  burns  in 
Oxygen  with  great  bril- 
liancy.     It  forms  Carbon 
di-oxide   (CO2),  a  color- 
less gas. 

Experiment.— Iviist  a  bit  of  wire  about  a  piece  of  charcoal  bark. 
Set  one  corner  of  the  charcoal  on  fire  by  holding  it  in  a  lamp-flame.  It 
will  not  burn  freely.  Immerse  it  (when  combustion  has  commenced)  in  a 
small  bell  of  Oxygen.  The  charcoal  burns  freely  and  with  great  brilliancy. 

73.  Iron  burns  freely  in  Oxygen  gas.       It  forms  a  solid 
product  called  Magnetic  oxide,  also  called  Ferroso-ferrk 
oxide  (Fe3O4). 

Experiment. — Twist  into  a  bunch  some  fine  iron  wire,  called  piano- 
forte wire.  (It  is  the  fine  wire  used  by  florists.)  To  one  end  of  the  wire 
attach  a  fragment  of  Sulphur.  Set  the  Sulphur  on  fire,  and  quickly 
immerse  it  in  one  of  the  jars  of  Oxygen.  The  Sulphur,  burning  bril- 
liantly, should  set  the  Iron  on  fire. 

74.  Nitrates,  when  heated  on  charcoal,  burn  the  coal. 

Experiment. — Heat,  on  charcoal,  before  the  blow-pipe,  -with  care, 
a  fragment  of  Potassic   nitrate  (KNO3).      The  Oxygen  of  the  Nitrate 
burns  the  coal  vividly. 
4* 


42  THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 

75.  Chlorates,  when  heated  on  charcoal,  burn  the  coal. 

Experiment. — Heat,  on  charcoal,  before  the  blow-pipe,  with  great 
care,  a  fragment  of  Potassic  chlorate  (K  C1O3). 

The  Oxygen  is  liberated  from  the  chlorate,  and  burns  the  coal  with  great 
violence. 

-^  Sulphur,  S. 

76.  Distribution  of  Sulphur. 

In  nature,  Sulphur  is  found  free,  called  native  Sulphur ; 
it  is  also  found  combined  with  metals,  as  in  Iron  pyrites 
(FeS2). 

In  the  arts,  it  is  known  as  Flowers  of  sulphur,  and  as 
Roll  brimstone;  and  in  many  compounds,  for  example, 
Sulphuric  acid  (H2SO4). 

77.  Preparation  of  Sulphur. 


pipe  tube  made  of  hard  glass.     The  mineral  gives  off  a  part  of  its  Sulphur, 
which  collects,  as  a  yellow  solid,  a  little  farther  up  in  the  tube. 

78.  Preparation  of  brittle  Sulphur. 

Experiment.  —  In  a  dry  test-tube,  heat  a  fragment  of  Brimstone, 
until  it  just  fuses.  Now  pour  it  into  cold  water.  The  cooled  Brimstone 
is  brittle. 

79.  Preparation  of  soft  Sulphur. 

Experiment.  —  Heat  another  portion  of  Brimstone  until  it  melts  ; 
then  until  it  grows  thick  and  dark  ;  then  heat  further,  until  it  grows  thin 
again  ;  now  pour  it  into  cold  water.  This  cooled  product  is  Sulphur,  but 
it  is  plastic  and  very  different  from  the  product  of  Experiment  78.  (Take 
care  that  the  Sulphur  does  not  take  fire.) 

80.  Preparation  of  crystallized  Sulphur. 


.  —  Dissolve  some  Flowers  of  sulphur  in  a  small  quantity 
of  Carbon  di-sulphide  (C  S2).     Allow  the  solution  to  evaporate,  by  itself, 


THE  NON-METALLIC  DYADS.  43 

over-night.      The  Sulphur  will  be  deposited  in  crystals,  from  its  solution. 
(Take  care  that  Carbon  di-sulphide  does 
not  take  fire.) 


81.  Sulphurous  di-oxide  (SO2) 
is  a  bleaching  agent. 

Experiment. — Put  a  few  fragments 
of  Roll  brimstone  in  a  small  crucil»ie. 
Heat  it  carefully  until  the  Sulphur  takes 

fire.     Cover  the  burning  Sulphur  with  a 

FIG.  19.—  bulpuurous  ci-oxide 

glass  lamp-chimney.      In  the  top  of  the  bleaching  a  flower, 

chimney  hang  a  moist  carnation-pink,  or 
other  red  flower.     The  gas  has  a  slight  bleaching  action  upon  the  flower. 

The  gas  is  Sulphurous  anhydride  (SO2).     It  is  used  for  bleaching  straw 
and  woolen  goods. 


Sulphuric  Acid,  H2  S  O4. 

82.  Sulphuric  acid,  when  mixed  with  water,  produces 
heat. 

Experiment.— Place  in  a  beaker  about  one  fluid-ounce  of  water;  now 
add,  very  carefully,  about  four  fluid-ounces  of  concentrated  Sulphuric  acid. 
Observe  the  great  heat  afforded  by  the  mixture. 

83.  Sulphuric  acid  strongly  reddens  litmus. 

Experiment. — Pulverize  a  few  blocks  of  litmus  ;  add  some  water  to 
it;  add  one  drop  of  Sodic  hydrate  solution — this  gives  a  blue  solution. 
Now  add  a  drop  of  Sulphuric  acid — this  should  turn  the  color  red.  Now 
add  just  enough  Sodic  4iydrate  to  turn  the  color  back  to  blue ;  finally,  add 
just  enough  Sulphuric  acid  to  bring  the  red  again. 

(Litmus  is  turned  red  by  acids,  and  blue  by  alkalies.) 

& 

81.  Concentrated  Sulphuric  acid  usually  contains 
Plumbic  sulphate  (PbSOJ,  which  it  derives  from  the 
leaden  walls  of  the  large  rooms  in  which  it  is  formed. 

Experiment. — Take  five  fluid-ounces  of  water.  Carefully  add  one 
fluid-ounce  Sulphuric  acid.  Stir,  and  allow  to  stand  over-night.  The 


44 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


concentrated  acid  contains  some  Plumbic  sulphate  (PbSO4)  dissolved  in 
it,  but  this  separates  from  the  diluted  acid,  and  is  found  as  a  white  sediment 
at  the  bottom  of  the  beaker. 
Save  the  clear  liquid. 

85.  Concentrated  Sulphuric  tacid  chars  sugar  (C12H22On). 

Experiment. — In  a  beaker,  dPtheSiize  of  a  te*fjpp,  place  four  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  white  sugar  ;  add  one  fluid-ounce  of  boiJin<B.water.  Having 
placed  the  beaker  in  a  dinner-plate,  add,  very  carefully,  0ne  ounce  of  con- 
centrated Sulphuric  acid.  A  black  carbonaceous  mass  appears. 

The  sugar  is  composed  of  Carbon,  Hydrogen,  and%Cjpcygen.  The 
Sulphuric  acid  withdraws  the  Hydrogen  and  Oxygen — as  water — and  so 
leaves  the  carbonaceous  mass. 

86.  Concentrated  Sulphuric  acid  chars  starch  (C6H10O5). 

Experiment. — Try  the  same  experiment  as  85,  only  use  starch 
instead  of  sugar.  Starch  has  the  same  chemical  elements  (C,  H,  and  O) 
that  sugar  has.  The  result  is  similar. 


FIG.  20. — Sulphuric  acid  charring  paper. 

Dilute  Sulphuric  acid — when  made  strong  by  dry- 
ing off  the  water — chars  paper  (C6H10O5). 

Experiment. — With  a  quill  pen,  write,  not  with  ink,  but  with  the 
acid  of  Experiment  84,  some  characters  upon  white  paper.  Dry  the  paper 
carefully  over  the  lamp-flame.  Where  the  characters  are,  the  paper  will 
become  black  and  charred. 


THE   NON-METALLIC  DYADS.  45 

The  paper  has  the  same  chemical  elements  (C,  H,  and  O)  that  starch 
and  sugar  have.  Here,  also,  the  Sulphuric  acid,  "when  by  drying  it  becomes 
strong  enottgh,  acts  just  as  in  Experiments  85  and  86. 

88.  Concentrated  Sulphuric  acid  dissolves  indigo. 

Experiment. — Grind  some  indigo  to  a  very  fine  powder.  Mix  it 
with  clean  sand,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  clots  of  the  indigo;  add  some 
concentrated  Sulphuric  acid;  allow  the  whole  to  stand  twenty-four  hours; 
then  pcoir  into  a  half-pint  of  water. 

Filter,  and  save  the  blue  solution. 


Sulphuretted  Hydrogen,  H2  S. 

89.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen   is  a  colorless  gas  with  a 
disagreeable  odor. 

Experiment. — Place  in  a  long  test-tube  a  fragment  of  Ferrous  sul- 
phide (Fe  S) ;  add  a  little  dilute  Sulphuric 
acid ;  observe  the  odor  of  the  gas  that  is 
liberated. 

FeS  -f  H2SO4  =   H2S  -  FeSO4. 

(Proceed    immediately   to    Experiment 
90.) 

90.  Sulphuretted    hydrogen 

blackens  Lead  compounds,  form-       FlG-  ".-Sulphuretted  hydrogen 

blackening  Plumbic  acetate. 

ing  black  PbS. 

Experiment. — Cover  the  test-tube  (Experiment  89)  with  a  piece  of 
filter-paper  which  has  had  a  few  drops  of  solution  of  Plumbic  acetate 
poured  upo^it.  A  black  coloration  of  Plumbic  sulphide  (Pb  S)  should 
appear  on  the  paper. 

Selenium,   8e,  and  Tellurium,   Te. 

91.  These  elements  are  so  rare  that  they  need  not  be 
discussed  here. 


CHAPTER    III. 
THE    NON-METALLIC    TRIADS. 

Boron  and  Nitrogen; 
Phosphorus,  Arsenic,  and  Antimony. 


OUTLINE    OF  THE   CHAPTER. 
Boron. 

Distribution. 

Boracic  Acid  (H3  B  O3). 

Preparation,  and  flame  color. 

Nitrogen. 

Distribution,  in  the  atmosphere,  in  Nitrates,  etc.     Its  inertness. 

Compounds  of  Nitrogen  and  Hydrogen. 

Ammonia-gas  (N  H3). 

When  free,  gives  test  with  H  Cl ;  otherwise,  does  not. 
Ammonic  hydrate  (N  H4  O  H)  is  an  Alkali. 
Ammonium  salts  are  volatile. 

Compounds  of  Nitrogen  and  Oxygen. 

Nitric  Acid  (H  N  O3). 

Attacks  quill,  indigo,  copper,  zinc,  iron,  nickel  coin,  lead ; 

Does  not  attack  gold; 

Turns  Ferrous  sulphate,  brown. 

Preparation,  from  K  N  O3  and  H2  S  O4.     (The  product  tested. 

Phosphorus. 

Occurs  in  bones ;  is  very  combustible ; 

Burns  into  P2O5;   forms  Phosphoric  acid  (H3  PO4). 
40 


THE   NON-METALLIC    TRIADS.  47 

Arsenic. 

Occurs  in  ores;    As2  O3    volatilizes  readily;    is  decomposed  by 

carbon ; 
Forms  yellow  Arsenious  sulphide  (As2  S3). 

Antimony. 

Occurs  in  ores ;  fuses  readily ; 

Does  not  dissolve  in  H  N  O3  ; 

Forms  orange  Antimonious  sulphide  (Sb2  S3). 


THE  NON-METALLIC  TRIADS. 

92.  The  non-metallic  triads  are  the  following : 


Name.                Symbol.          Ordinary  condition. 

Color                    Approximate 
Atomic  weight. 

Boron, 

B, 

solid, 

brown, 

11. 

Nitrogen, 

N, 

gas, 

none, 

14. 

Phosphorus, 

P, 

solid, 

amber, 

31. 

Arsenic, 

As, 

solid, 

steel, 

75. 

Antimony, 

Sb, 

solid, 

bluish-white, 

122. 

Boron,  B. 

93.  Distribution  of  Boron. 

In  nature  and  in  the  arts,  Boron  is  little  known  except 
in  Boracic  acid  (H3BO3)  and  in  Borax  (Na^A  -f  ioH2O). 

94.  Boracic  acid  is  a  crystalline  solid. 

Experiment. — Dissolve  some  Borax  in  hot  water;  niter  if  neces- 
sary; add  some  Chlorohydric  acid;  allow  the  whole  to  cool.  White 
crystals  of  Boracic  acid  should  separate.  The  Chlorhydric  acid  sets  free 
the  weaker  Boracic  acid. 

Na.B.O,    -f    2HC1    +    5H20    =    4H3BO3    +    2  Na  Cl. 


48 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


95.  Boracic  acid,  when  highly  heated,  gives  out  green 
light. 


.  —  Place  a  little  Borax  in  a  casserole,  and  add  some 
Sulphuric  acid  to  liberate  the  Boracic  acid  ;  now  add  some  alcohol  ;  dip  a 
glass  rod  into  the  mixture,  and  then  hold  the  rod  in  the  flame  of  a 
lamp.  The  highly  heated  Boracic  acid  imparts  a  delicate  green  color  to 
the  flame.  (If  the  alcohol  takes  fire  in  the  casserole,  and  it  is  desired  U, 
extinguish  it,  cover  it  with  a  folded  towel.) 


FIG   22.-    Luracic  acid  imparts  a  green  color  to  the  flame  of  alcohol. 

Nitrogen,  N. 

96.  Distribution  of  Nitrogen. 

In  nature,  Nitrogen  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  our 
atmosphere.  It  is  also  found  in  Saltpetre  (KNO3,  also 
called  Potassic  nitrate), 

In  the  arts,  it  exists  in  Nitrates  and  Nitric  acid  (HNO3). 

The  element  Nitrogen  is  very  inert,  so  that  few  experi- 
ments can  be  performed  with  it ;  but  some  of  its  com- 
pounds are  exceedingly  active. 


Compounds  of  Nitrogen  and  Hydrogen. 

NH2,     called   Amidogen    (existing  only   in   combination   with   other 

elements). 

NH3,     Ammonia-gas. 
N  H4,     Ammonium  (existing  only  in  combination  with  other  elements). 


THE   NON-METALLIC   TRIADS.  49 

Ammonia-gas,  NH3. 

97.  The  test  for  free  Ammonia. 


*  —  Pour  some  Spirits  of  Hartshorn  (Ammonic  hydrate, 
N  H4  O  H)  into  a  small  flask  ;  shake  the  flask  ;  the  Ammonic  hydrate  gives 
off  colorless,  pungent-smelling  Ammonia-gas  (N  H3).  Suspend  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  flask  a  glass  rod  previously  dipped  in  concentrated  Chlo- 
rohydric  acid.  Fumes  of  Ammonic  chloride  (N  H4  Cl)  appear. 

NH3     -f     HC1     =     NH4C1. 
The  fumes  are  minute  particles  of  a  white  solid,  N  H4  Cl. 


FIG.  23. — Ammonia-gas  and  Chlorohydric-gas  meeting  in  the  air  and  forming 
Ammonic  chloride. 

98.  Another  method  of  producing  the  cloud  of  Am- 
monic chloride. 

Experiment. — Place  in  a  wine-glass  or  beaker  some  strong  solution 
of  Ammonic  hydrate.  Place  near  it  another  similar  vessel,  containing  con- 
centrated Chlorohydric  acid.  A  cloud  of  Ammonic  chloride  forms  in  the 
air  between  them,  especially  noticeable  when  the  two  glasses,  are  moved 
from  side  to  side. 

99.  To  test  for  combined  Ammonia,  having  first  liber- 
ated it. 

Experiment* — Into  a  small  flask  pour  a  small  quantity  of  solution 
of  Ammonic  chloride  (N  H4  Cl).     Try  with  the  rod  and  Chlorohydric 
acid.     There  should  be  little,  if  any,  fume.      Now  add  solution  of  Sodic 
5  » 


5O  THE   YOUNG   CHEMIST. 

hydrate,  and,  after  shaking  the  flask,  try  the  rod  again.     Fumes  should  now 
appear,  because  Ammonia-gas  (N  H3)  has  been  liberated,  thus  : 

N  H4  Cl     4-     Na  O  H     —     N  H3     +     H2  O     -f     Na  Cl. 

100.  Ammonic  hydrate  is  an  alkali. 

Experiment. — Pulverize  a  block  of  litmus ;  add  some  water  and  a 
drop  of  dilute  Sulphuric  acid.  The  solution  .will  be  red;  now,  by  care- 
fully adding  Ammonic  hydrate,  the  Sulphuric  acid  may  be  neutralized,  and 
the  litmus  changed  to  blue. 

101.  Ammonia-gas   has    a   very   strong   attraction   for 
water. 

Experiment. — FIRST  STAGE. — Invert  a  small  flask  in  a  metal  sup- 
port of  some  kind,  and  then  fill  the  flask  with  Ammonia-gas,  by  displace- 
ment of  the  air,  as  follows.  In  a  side-neck  test-tube  place  some  strong 
Aqua-ammonia.  Add  some  Sodic  hydrate  (solid  or  in  solution).  Now 
heat  the  test-tube.  By  means  of  a  rubber  tube,  direct  the  Ammonia-gas 
upward  into  the  inverted  flask. 

SECOND  STAGE. — When  the  flask  is  supposed  to  be  full  of  Ammonia-gas, 
place  in  its  neck  a  perforated  cork,  fitted  with  a  little  glass  tube  open  at 
both  ends.  Dip  the  outer  (and  larger)  opening  into  a  dilute  solution  of 
Cupric  sulphate.  If  the  experiment  is  properly  conducted,  the  copper 
solution  will  soon  be  drawn  up  into  the  flask,  so  as  to  make  a  miniature 
fountain.  The  rapid  absorption  of  the  gas  by  the  water-solution  causes  the 
latter  to  be  readily  forced  up  by  the  atmospheric  pressure. 

102.  All  Ammonium  salts  are  volatile. 

Experiment. — Place  a  fragment  of  dry  Ammonic  chloride  on  Plati- 
num foil;  heat  it  over  the  lamp;  the  Ammonic  chloride  will  go  off"  as  a 
vapor,  which  finally  solidifies  as  dense  white  smoke. 

Compounds  of  Nitrogen  and  Oocygen. 

N2  O,  Nitrogen  protoxide  (called  laughing-gas). 

N2  O2  (or  N  O),       Nitrogen  cli-oxide. 

N2  O3,  Nitrogen    tri-oxide    or    Nitrous    anhydride    (forms 

Nitrous   acid). 

N2  O4  (or  N  O2),     Nitrogen  tetroxide  (brown  fumes). 
N2  O5,  Nitrogen    pentoxide   or  Nitric    anhydride    (forms 

Nitric  acid). 


THE   NON-METALLIC    TRIADS.  %   51 

Nitrogen  di-oxide,  N2  O2  (or  N  O).     , 

103.  Nitrogen  di-oxide,  a  colorless  gas,  readily  absorbs 
Oxygen  from  the  air,  and  then  forms  brown  fumes  of 
Nitrogen  tetroxide,  N2O4  (or  NO2). 

Experiment. — Place  some  copper  wire  in  a  side-neck  flask.  To  it, 
add  concentrated  Nitric  acid.  Allow  the  gas  formed  to  pass  into  a  small 
bell-glass  full  of  water.  (If  any  brown  fumes  pass  into  the  bell,  they  may 
be  disregarded,  for  they  will  soon  be  absorbed  by  the  water.)  Finally, 
empty  the  little  bell-glass  into  the  air ;  brown  fumes  will  at  once  appear. 


Nitrogen  pentoxide,  N2  O5. 

104.  This  substance  is  often  called   Nitric  anhydride, 
because   it  is  viewed  as   Nitric  acid   deprived  of  water. 
With  water  it  forms   Nitric  acid. 

N205     +     HaO.,*=     2HN03. 

Nitric  Acid,  HNO*. 

105.  Nitric  acid  turns  quill,  and  other  animal  matters, 
to  a  yellow  color. 

Experiment. — Warm  a  few  fragments  of  white  quill  in  dilute 
Nitric  acid;  then  wash  the  pieces  in  water.  They  will  be  found  to  have 
acquired  a  permanent  yellow  color.  Many  animal  matters  are  turned 
yellow  by  Nitric  acid. 

106.  Nitric   acid  turns  indigo  to  a  permanent  yellow 
color. 

Experiment. — Place  a  drop  of  concentrated  Nitric  acid  on  a  piece 
of  dark-blue  flannel;  if  the  goods  are  dyed  with  indigo,  the  acid  produces 
a  bright  yellow  spot. 

107.  Nitric  acid  attacks  Copper  with  violence  ;  it  forms 
a  green   (or  blue)   solution;    it   liberates   a   gas,  at   first 
colorless,  then  brown. 


THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 


Experiment. — Place  in  a  test-tube  a  short  strip  of  Copper  wire; 
add  Nitric  acid  :  then  warm  it  gently  until  the  Copper  disappears.  Cupric 
nitrate,  Cu  (N  O3)2,  will  be  formed. 

3Cu     4-     8HN03  3Cu(N03)2     +     4H2O     +     N2  O2. 

The  action  produces  a  colorless  gas  (Nitrogen  di-oxide,  N2  O2),  but 
this  gas,  upon  coming  in  contact  with  the  afr,  combines  with  Oxygen  of 
the  air,  and  forms  brown  fumes  of  Nitrogen  tetroxide  (N2  O4),  which  are 
seen  at  the  mouth  of  the  tube.  (See  paragraph  103.) 


N202 


N204. 


108.  Nitric  acid  attacks  Zinc  with  great  violence. 

Experiment. — Try  the  same  experiment  as  107,  only  employ  Zinc 
in  place  of  Copper.  Zinc  nitrate,  Zn  (N  O3)2,  will  be  formed.  It  gives 
a  colorless  solution.  It  evolves  brown  fumes. 


109.  Nitric  acid  attacks  Iron  with 
violence. 

Experiment. — Try  the  same  experiment 
as  107,  only  employ  Iron  wire  in  place  of 
Copper.  A  more  complex  compound — Ferric 
nitrate,  Fe2  (N  O3)6 — is  formed. 

110.  Nitric  acid  dissolves  a  Nickel 
coin. 

Experiment. — Try  the  same  experiment 
as  107,  only  employ  a  Nickel  coin.  As  the 
coin  consists  of  Copper  and  Nickel  or  of 
Copper,  Nickel,  and  Zinc,  there  may  be  formed 
Cupric  nitrate,  Cu  (N  O3)2,  Zinc  nitrate, 
Zn(  N  O3)2,  and  Nickelous  nitrate,  Ni  (N  O3)2. 


FIG.  24.— Nitric  acid  dis 
solving  Copper. 


111.  Lead  and  some  other  metals  dissolve  better  in 
dilute  Nitric  acid  than  in  concentrated  Nitric  acid. 

Experiment. — Add  concentrated  Nitric  acid  to  some  shavings  of 
metallic  Lead.  A.  part  of  the  Lead  dissolves,  but  in  so  doing  it  forms 
crystals  of  Plumbic  nitrate,  Pb(NO3)2,  which  collect  on  the  Lead  and 


THE  NON-METALLIC    TRIADS. 


53 


cover  it  up,  and  stop  further  action  of  the  acid.  Now  add  water ;  this  will 
be  found  to  dissolve  the  crystals,  and  to  allow  the  action  of  the  Nitric  acid 
to  continue. 

112.  Aqua-regia  dissolves  Gold — though  neither  of  the 
components,  when  separate,  will  do  so. 

Experiment. — Prepare  two  beakers;  into  one  put  some  Nitric  acid 
and  a  strip  of  Gold-leaf;  into  the  other  put  some  Chlorohydric  acid  and  a 
strip  of  Gold-leaf;  warm  each  one  separately.  The  Gold  will  not  dissolve 
in  either  case.  Mix  the  contents  of  the  two  beakers,  and  the  Gold  dis- 
solves at  once. 

The  mixture  of  these  two  acids  is  called  Aqua-regia  (royal- water), 
because  it  dissolves  the  king  of  the  metals,  Gold.  Auric  chloride  (Au  C13) 
is  formed. 

113.  Ferrous  sulphate  affords  a  delicate  test  for  Nitric 
acid. 

Experiment. — Dilute  some  Nitric  acid  with  water  to  about  one- 
tenth  of  its  strength;  into  the  dilute  acid  drop  a  crystal  of  Ferrous 
sulphate  (Fe  SO4)  and  a  little  concentrated  Sulphuric  acid.  The  crystal 
becomes  surrounded  with  a  deep-brown  coloration  (Ferrous  nitro-sulphate, 
FeSO4,  N2O2).  (Ferrous  sulphate  is  called,  in  commerce,  copperas, 
also  green  vitriol.) 


FIG.  25. — Preparation  of  Nitric  acid. 


5* 


54  THE    YOUNG  CHEMIST. 

114.  Preparation  of  Nitric  acid  (HNO3). 

Experiment.—  Place  a  little  Potassic  nitrate  (KNO3)  in  a  small 
retort;  to  it,  add  enough  concentrated  Sulphuric  acid  to  make  a  thin  paste; 
connect  the  neck  of  the  retort  with  a  clean  test-tube  containing  a  few  drops 
of  water,  and  then  gently  heat  the  retort  for  some  time.  Nitric  acid  (  H  N  O  3  ) 
will  be  formed,  and  will  distill  from  the  retort  and  condense  in  the  receiver. 


+     HNO3. 

Hydro-potassic  sulphate. 

After  a  sufficient  amount  of  Nitric  acid  has  collected,  test  it  as  described 
in  Experiment  115. 

115.  Tests  for  the  Nitric  acid  already  prepared. 

Experiment.  —  Divide  the  acid,  produced  by  Experiment  114,  into 
three  parts: 

(«)  To  the  first  portion,  add  a  small  fragment  of  Copper  wire;  the 
Copper  should  freely  dissolve,  evolving  Nitrogen  di-oxide,  and  leaving  a 
blue  solution  of  Cupric  nitrate.  (See  Experiment  107.) 

(6)  To  the  second  portion,  add  water,  and  then  boil  a  piece  of  quill  in 
it.  The  quill  turns  yellow.  (See  Experiment  105.) 

(c]  Dilute  the  third  portion  with  water,  and  then  add  some  Sulphuric 
acid  and  a  crystal  of  Ferrous  sulphate.  (See  Experiment  113.) 


Phosphorus,  P. 
116.  Distribution  of  Phosphorus. 

In  nature,  Phosphorus  occurs,  principally,  in  bones. 
These  are  composed,  mainly,  of  Calcic  phosphate, 
Ca3(P04)2. 

In  the  arts,  the  element  Phosphorus  and  many  Phos- 
phates are  employed. 

Phosphorus  is  very  poisonous  and  very  combustible. 
It 'should  never  be  touched  with  the  hands,  since  danger- 
ous burns  are  often  caused  by  it. 


THE   NON-METALLIC   TRIADS. 


55 


117.  Phosphorus  burns  into  Phosphoric  oxide  (P2O5). 

Experiment. — Cut  a  piece  of  Phosphorus  under  water.     Dry,  upon 
a  piece  of  filter-paper,  a  fragment  smaller  than  a  pea ;  place  the  fragment 
upon  a  piece  of  wood,  metal,  or  porcelain. 
After  setting  the  Phosphorus  on  fire,  cover 
it   quickly   with    a    large  jar  or  bell-glass. 
The  white  fumes  are  Phosphoric  anhydride 
(P.O.). 


118.  Phosphoric  anhydride,  with 
water,  produces  Phosphoric  acid 
(H.POJ 

Experiment. — The  Phosphoric  anhy- 
dride of  the  last  experiment  is  a  white, 
snow-like  substance  which  quickly  absorbs 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere — so  quickly, 
in  fact,  that  the  white  substance  cannot 
always  be  secured. 

If  a  little  of  it  can  be  obtained,  throw  it 

on  water ;  it  hisses,  owing  to  the  heat  of  combination.    It  forms  Phosphoric 
acid  (H8  P  O4). 

3H20     +     P205     =     2(H3P04). 

Apply  a  fragment  of  moist  blue  litmus-paper  to  the  place,  under  the  jar, 
where  the  Phosphoric  acid  is  supposed  to  be.  A  reddening  of  the  paper 
will  indicate  the  presence  of  the  acid. 


FIG.  26. — Phosphorus  burning 


Arsenic,  As. 
119.  Distribution  of  Arsenic. 

In  nature,  Arsenic  occurs  as  a  constituent  of  a  large 
number  of  metallic  ores. 

In  the  arts,  it  occurs  in  the  form  of  Arsenious  oxide 
(As.2O3),  also  called  White-arsenic.  It  is  also  contained 
in  Paris-green. 


50  THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 

Most  of  the  compounds  of  Arsenic  are  very  poisonous ; 
they  must  be  handled  with  great  care. 


120.  Arsenical  compounds,  heated  on  charcoal,  give  a 
peculiar  odor. 

Experiment. — Heat  upon  charcoal  a  fragment  of  As2O3  no  bigger 
than  a  pin's  head.     It  volatilizes,  giving  forth  an  odor  of  garlic. 


121.  White-arsenic  may  be  sublimed  in  a  glass  tube. 

Experiment. — Heat,  in  a  blow-pipe  tube  of  hard  glass,  a  pin-head 
of  White-arsenic.  It  volatilizes,  and  condenses  in  crystals  of  the  same 
composition  as  before. 


FIG.  27. — Arsenious  oxide  detected  by  heated  charcoal. 


122.  Highly  heated  Carbon  withdraws  Oxygen  from 
Arsenious  oxide. 

Experiment. — Place  a  pin-head  of  Arsenious  oxide  in  a  blow-pipe 
tube ;  above  it,  place  a  minute  fragment  of  charcoal ;  heat  the  tube  near 
the  charcoal,  and  then  near  the  White-arsenic.  The  Carbon  should  take 


THE   NON  METALLIC    TRIADS.  $? 

Oxygen  from  the  Arsenious  anhydride,  forming  Carbonic  anhydride  gas, 
which  escapes,  while  uncombined  Arsenic  forms  a  black  sublimate  in  the 
tube. 

123.  Arsenic  can  form  a  yellow  sulphide  of  Arslnic 

(As2S3). 

Experiment. — Dissolve  a  pin-head  of  White-arsenic  in  Chlorohydric 
acid;  this  produces  Arsenious  chloride  (As  C13).  Now  add  water  and 
then  Sulphuretted-hydrogen  as  gas,  or  dissolved  in  water.  A  yellow 
precipitate  of  Arsenious  sulphide  appears  (As2  S3). 

2  As  C13     +     3  H2  S     =     As2  S3     -f     6  H  Cl. 


Antimony,  Sb.    (Stibium.) 
124:.  Distribution  of  Antimony. 

In  nature,  Antimony  is  found  in  many  minerals,  princi- 
pally in  Stibnite  (Sb2S3). 

In  the  arts,  it  is  known  as  the  element  Antimony,  called 
metallic  Antimony.  Tartar  emetic  is  a  double  tartrate  of 
Antimony  and  Potassium. 

125.  Antimony  fuses  readily  and  burns  readily. 

Experiment. — Fuse,  on  charcoal,  a  small  fragment  of  Antimony 
(not  larger  than  a  pin-head).  It  fuses  readily,  and,  if  it  drops  on  the  table, 
the  molten  fragments  hop  along,  burning  in  the  air,  and  leaving  a  small, 
smoky  ash  of  Antimonic  oxide  (Sb2  O5). 

126.  Antimony  does  not  dissolve  in  Nitric  acid. 

Experiment. — Boil  a  few  fragments  of  Antimony  with  a  little  Nitric 
acid.  The  acid  does  not  dissolve  the  Antimony,  though  it  changes  it  into 
an  oxide  (Antimony  tetroxide,  Sb2  O4). 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


127.  Antimony  forms  an  orange  Sulphide  of  Antimony 
(Sb2S3). 

Experiment. — Dissolve  a  little  Tartar  emetic  in  water  and  a  few 
dropfc  of  Chlorohydric  acid.  Add  some  Sulphuretted-hydrogen  as  gas,  or 
dissolved  in  water.  An  orange  precipitate  of  Antimonious  sulphide 
appears  (Sb2S3). 


FIG.  28. — Sulphuretted- hyv..iojcii  ^'us  ustd  to  precipitate  Antimony. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
THE  NON-METALLIC  TETRADS. 

Carbon  ; 
Silicon,  Titanium,  and  Tin. 


OUTLINE    OF   THE    CHAPTER. 
Carbon. 

Distribution  in  nature ; 

Shown  to  exist  in  starch ; 

May  be  detected  by  Potassic  nitrate  (K  N  O3). 

Charcoal  decolorizes  indigo  solution ; 

Does  not  dissolve  in  any  ordinary  solvent. 

Compounds  of  Carbon  and  Hydrogen.  *8 

Compounds  of  Carbon,  Hydrogen,  and  Oxygen. 
Compounds  of  Carbon  and  Oxygen. 

Carbon  di-oxide  (C  O2). 

Is  prepared  from  marble ; 

Extinguishes  flame ; 

May  be  poured  into  another  vessel ; 

Makes  lime-water  milky ; 

Is  exhaled  from  the  lungs. 
Silicon. 

Distribution  in  nature ; 

Sand  (SiO2)  is  difficult  to  fuse;  and  to  dissolve. 

Soluble  glass  is  decomposed  by  H  Cl. 

Titanium. 

(Rare.) 

Till. 

Distribution. 

It  dissolves  in  H  Cl,  but  not  in  H  N  O3. 

59 


6o 


THE    YOUNG  CHEMIST. 


THE  NON-METALLIC  TETRADS. 

128.  The  non-metallic  tetrads  are  the  following : 


Name. 

Symbol. 

•4 

Ordinary  condition. 

Color.           i 

fi 

X£±££. 

Carbon, 

c, 

solid, 

black, 

12. 

Silicon, 
Titanium, 
Tin, 

Si, 
Ti, 
Sn, 

solid, 
solid, 
solid, 

black, 
dark  green, 
white, 

28. 
48. 
118. 

Carbon,  C. 

129.  Distribution  of  Carbon. 


In  nature,  Carbon  exists  (a)  crystallized  in  the  Dia- 
mond ;  (b)  as  Graphite,  the  black  mineral  called  also 
Plumbago  and  Black-lead,  and  used  in  lead-pencils;  (c)  as 
Charcoal^  which  is  formed  by  heating  either  animal  or 
vegetable  matters  in  such  a  way  as  to  expel  elements 
other  than  Carbon,  and  to  leave  the  latter. 

Pit-coal  (Anthracite  or  Bituminous) 
is  far  from  pure  carbon ;  it  contains 
many  other  elements. 

130.  Charring  affords  a  simple  test 
for  Carbon. 

Experiment. — Heat  a  small  fragment  of 
starch  in  a  test-tube;  an  impure  carbon  is  left. 
(Starch  is  C6  H10  O5.) 

131.  Potassic  nitrate  deflagrates  with 
charcoal. 

FIG.  29.— Carbon.     Side-  Experiment. — Fuse  gently,  on  platinum, 

ii^unt:  £  » «-» p-«  °f  p<*--  »*-«.  c-f"1?  dr°p 

called  a  brilliant.  into  the  fused  mass  a  fragment  of  charcoal.    Heat 


THE   NON-METALLIC    TETRADS. 


6l 


carefully,  if  necessary.     The  deflagration  which  ensues  is  a  true  combus- 
tion of  the  coal,  the  K  N  O3  .furnishing  the  Oxygen. 

132.  Carbon  is  a  decolorizing  agent. 

.i 

Experiment. — Filter  an  indigo  solution  (Experiment  88)  through 
p.aper.    It  passes  through  still  blue, 
showing  that  we  have  a  true  soln- 
fion  of  the  indigo. 

To  the  filtrate,  add  some  animal  \N^F 

charcoal,  and   filter   again.      The  \jjfcx 

charcoal    manifests    a    wonderful 
decolorizing   power. 

133.  Carbon  is  not  solu? 

ble  in  any  ordinary  solvent. 

i 

Experiment. — Boil  a  frag- 
ment of  charcoal  with  Chlorohy- 
dric  acid.  It  will  not  dissolve. 

There  is  scarcely  any  substance 
known  that  will  dissolve  Carbon 
as  an  element  zx\&  without  changing 
it  into  some  new  compound. 


FIG.  30. — Indigo  solution  decolorized  by 
filtering  through  animal  charcoal. 


Compounds  of  Carbon  and  Hydrogen. 
134.  These  compounds  are  numbered  by  hundreds : 
Of  solids,  Paraffine  ; 
Of  liquids,  Turpentine  ; 
Of  gases,  Illuminating  gases,  are  examples. 

Test  each  of  these  for  Carbon,  by  burning  them  care- 
fully in  or  under  a  porcelain  dish,  so  as  to  give  a 
deposit  of  lamp-black. 

Two  of  the  best-known  gaseous  hydro-carbons  are 
Marsh  gas,  also  called  Methyl  hydride  (CH4),  and  Ole- 
fiant  gas,  also  called  Ethylene  (C2H4). 


*'  * '      .  * 

62  THE   YOUNG   CHEMIST. 


Olefiant  gas  (Ethytene),  +C2  H±. 

*  *  *•*    - 

.  135.  Olefiant  gas  burns  with  a    luminoifs    flame.     (It 

must   be   prepared    with  great  care$  one    reason    being 
because  it  forms  an  explosive  mixture  with  air.) 


.  —  Place  about  half  a  thimbleful  of  ordinary  Alcohol 
(Ethyl  alcohol)  in  a  side-neck  flask.  To  itj^add  about  four  times  its  bulk 
of  concentrated  Sulphuric  acid  ;  add  also  a  little  clean  sand,  to  prevent 
frothing.  Heat  the  flask,  carefully  ;  and  when  the  gas  appears  to  have 
expelled  the  air  of  the  apparatus,  collect  what  next  comes,  in  a  small  bell- 
glass.  Afterward  try  the  gas  with  a  lighted  taper.  It  shoi^jd  burn  with 
a  yellow  flame!  (It  is  not  pure  Ethylene.) 


Compounds  of  Carbon,  Hydrogen,  and 

Oxygen. 

' 
136.  These,    also,   are    extremely    numerous.      Starch 

(C6H^O5),  Wood  (C6H10O,),  Sugar  (C12H22On),  and  Alco- 
hol (C2H5OH),  are  examples. 


Compounds  of  Carbon  and  Oxygen. 

137.  Carbon  forms  two  compounds  with  Oxygen, 
namely,  Carbon  mon-oxide  (CO),  and  Carbon  di-oxide 
(CO2).  Both  of  them  are  colorless  gases. 


Carbon  rnon-oxide,  C  O. 

138.  Carbon  mon-oxide  burns  with  a  blue  flame,  and 
with  the  production  of  Carbon  di-oxide  (CO2). 

Experiment. — Place  a  few  fragments  of  crystallized  Oxalic  acid 
(H2  O2  C2  O2)  in  a  side-neck  tube.  To  it,  add  sufficient  Sulphuric  acid 
to  moisten  it.  Now  heat  gently.  Carry  the  evolved  gas  to  a  small  bell- 
glass.  Afterward  try  the  gas  with  a  lighted  taper;  it  should  burn  with  a 
pale-blue  flame. 


THE   NON-METALLIC   TETRADS. 


Carbon  di-fixide,  C  O2. 

139.  Carbon  di-oxide  (CO2)  (also  called  Carbonic  acid, 
Carbonic  anhydride,  etc.)  may  be  prepared  from  a  Car- 
bonate. 

Experiment. — Fill  a  test-tube  one-third  full  of  Chlorohydric  acid; 
drop   into   the    acid   a   fragment  of  Potassic  carbonate;  the   effervescence 
observed  is  due  to  the  escape  of  Carbonic  anhydride,  a  gas. 
. 

2    K  Cl 


K2  C  03 


2  H  Cl     =     CO, 


H2  O. 


(White  marble,  which  is  Calcic  carbonate  (Ca  C  O3),  maybe  used  in 
place  of  Potassic  carbonate.    See  next  experiment,  No.  140.) 


140.  Carbon  di-oxide  extinguishes  flame. 


.  —  Put  a  little  Chlorohydric  acid  in  the  bottom  of  a 
wide-mouthed  candy-jar  or  other  jar  ;  add  some,,  fragments  of  marble  ; 
allow  the  action  to  go  on  for  a  few  minutes.  Immerse  a  candle  or  a 
lighted  taper  in  the  jar  ;  when  it  comes  below  the  surface  of  the  Car- 
bonic gas,  it  will  be  extinguished  suddenly. 


Ca  C  O3     +     2  H  Cl     =     CO, 

• 
141.  Carbon     di-oxide, 

though  invisible,  is  a 
heavy  gas,  and  may  be 
poured  from  one  vessel 
to  another. 


Experiment. — Suspend  a 
lighted  candle  in  a  small  beaker 
or  jar,  or  cover  the  lighted 
candle  with  a  glass  lamp-chim- 
ney. Upon  the  candle,  carefully 
pour  .the  gas  left  in  the  jar  from 
Experiment  140.  If  the  experi- 
ment is  properly  performed,  the 
candle  will  be  quickly  extin- 
guished by  the  falling  gas. 


Ca  C12     +     H2  O. 


FIG.  31. — Pouring  Carbon  di-oxide  from  one 
vessel  to  another  to  extinguish  a  burning 
candle. 


64 


v 

THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST, 


142.  Carbon  di-oxide  makes  lime-water  milky  with 
Calcic  Carbonate.  ^ 

Experiment. — Prepare  some  fresh  lime-water  as  follows.  Pulverize 
a  fragment  of  quicklime  (Ca  O,  called  Calcic  oxide) ;  then  place  it  in 
a  pint  bottle  of  water.  Allow  the  mixture  to  stand  over-night  or  until  the 
solid  subsides,  and  the  liquid  becomes  quite  clear. 

Generate  a  little  Carbonic  gas  in  a  beaker,  and  pour  the  gas  into  a  smaller 

beaker  half- full  of  fresh  lime- 
water;  on  the  surface  of  the 
lime-water  a  white  precipitate  of 
Calcic  carbonate  (Ca  C  O3)  ap- 
pears. Stirring  the  solution 
favors  absorption  of  the  gas. 


Ca02H2 


C0 


143.  Carbon  di-oxide 
is  exhaled  from  the  lungs 
of  livujg  animals. 

Experiment. — Take   a 
beaker   one-third   full  of  fresh 
and  clear  lime-water ;  by  means 
of  a   glass    tube,   blow    a   few 
bubbles  of  breath  into  the  lime- 
water  ;     the   Carbonic   gas   ex- 
haled from  the  lungs  will  soon  render  the  clear  water  milky,  with  Calcic 
carbonate. 


FIG.    32. — Carbonic  di-oxide  from    the    lungs 
passed  into  Lime-water  (Ca  O.j  H2). 


Silicon,    Si. 

• 
144.  Distribution  of  Silicon. 

In  nature,  Silicon  is  the  second  element  in  order  of 
abundance.  One-fourth,  by  weight,  of  our  planet,  is 
Silicon.  But  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  uncom- 
bined  Silicon,  owing  to  its  intense  affinity  for  Oxygen, 
with  which  it  is  almost  always  united  Sand,  quartz,  and 


- 

THE  NON-METALLIC   TETRADS,  65 

rock-crystal  are  forms  of  Silicic  oxide  (SiO2).     Most  other 
rocks  are  Silicates. 

In  the  arts,  glass  and  Silicate  of  soda  are  its  best-known 
compounds. 

145.  Sand  is  very  infusible. 

Expci'huetlt. — Heat  some  sand  on  a  platinum  foil;  it  will  not  melt. 


FIG.  33. — Crystals  of  Quartz,  Silicic  oxide  (Si  O2). 

146.  Sand  is  very  insoluble. 

Experiment. — Boil  some  sand   in   a  test-tube    with   Chlorohydric 
acid;  it  scarcely  dissolves  at  all. 

147.  Silicic  acicns  gelatinous  or  jelly-like. 

Experiment. — Place  some  soluble  Silicate  of  soda  in  a  test-tube,  and 
then  add  some  Chlorohydric  acid;  a  gelatinous  precipitate  of  Silicic  acid 

is  formed. 

I 

Titanium,  Ti. 

bstance   is   comparatively   rare,  and  need   not 

here.) 

E 


66 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


Tin,  Sn.     (Stannum.) 

148.  Distribution  of  Tin.  0 

In  nature,  Tin  occurs  as  an  oxide,  called  Stannic  oxide 
(Sn02). 

In  the  arts,  the  un combined  element  is  called  Block-tin. 
What  is  called  Sheet-tin  is  really  Sheet-iron  with  a  thin 
coating  of  Tin.  Stannous  chloride  (SnCl2),  also  called 
Tin-crystals,  and  Sodic  stannate  (Na2SnO3),  are  much 
used  in  dyeing. 


149.  Stannous  sulphide  is  a  dark-brown  precipitate. 

Experiment.  —  Dissolve  some  Siftmnous  chloride  in  water  and  Chlo- 
rohydric  acid;  add  some  Sulphuretted-hydrogen  as  gas  or  dissolved  in 
water;  a  dark-brown  precipitate  of  Stannous  sulphide  (SnS)  appears. 


H2S     =     SnS     -f     2  H  Cl. 


150.  Jin  dissolves  in  Chloro- 
hydric  acid. 

Experiment.—  Boil  Tin-foil  or  some 
filings  of  Tin,  in  Chlorohydric  acid ;  they 
partly  or  wholly  dissolve,  forming  SnCl2. 


Sn 


2HC1    =    SnCl, 


H9. 


Test  a   little 


the  clear  solution  by 
as  gas   or 


:jft 

adding    Sulphuralpd 

FIG.  34. -Posing  Sulphuretted-        £jssolved  ifi  wateT    The  dark-brown  pre- 
hydrogen    gas  into  a   solution 
of  Tin  cipitate  is  Stannous  sulphide  (Sn  S). 

, 
151.  Nitric  acid  oxidizes  Tin,  but  does  not  dissolve  it. 


>il  some  Tin-foil  or  filings  of  Tin,  in  Nitric  acid ; 

the  acid  does  not  dissolve  the  metal,  though  it  changes  it  to  a  whjgf  insol- 
uble acid,  called  Meta-stannic  acid  (H10  Sn5  O15). 


CHAPTER    V, 
THE    METALLIC    MONADS. 

Silver; 
Potassium,,  Sodium,  and  IMhiiim. 


OUTLINE    OF  THE   CHAPTER. 
Silver. 

§ 

Distribution. 

It  dissolves  in  dilute  Nitric  acid. 

Silver  coin  proved  to  contain  Copper  and  Silver. 

Potassium. 

Distribution.     Many  important  Potassic  salts  are  used  in  the  arts. 

Potassic  carbonate  deliquesces. 

Potassic  chlorate  deflagrates. 

Potassic  nitrate  gives  a  good  flame-color. 

Potassic  di-chrojgMWbrms  chrome-yellow. 


.:  jra^£  ft  i 


Sodium. 

Dist 
i 
Sodium  salts  give  an  orange  flame-color. 


^Distribution.-   A  few  Sodium  salts  are  used  in  enormous  quantities 
in  the  arts. 


Lithium. 

giv^a  crimson  flame-color. 


67 


I 


68 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


• 


THE  METALLIC  MONADS. 

152.  The  principal  metallic  monads  are  the  following 


Name. 

Symbol. 

Ordinary  condition. 

Color. 

Approximate 
Atomic  weight. 

Silver, 

•W--  -    -- 

Ag, 

solid, 

white, 

108. 

Potassium, 

K, 

solid, 

white, 

39. 

Sodium, 

Na, 

solid, 

white, 

23. 

Lithium, 

Li, 

solid, 

white, 

7- 

ver,  Ag.    (Argentwm.) 

•  »•  '• 
153.  Distribution  of  Silver. 

In  nature,  Silver  is  found  native  or  uncombined ;  it  also 
occurs  in  a  state  of  combination  with  Sulphur  and  with 
other  elements. 

In  the  arts,  Silver  coins  and  Silver  ware  are  employed. 
They  are  usually  alloys  of  Silver  and  Copper,  the  Copper 
giving  hardness  to  the  alloys.  Argentic  nitrate  (AgNO3) 
— also  called  Nitrate  of  silver — is  largely  used  by 
photographers. 

154.  Silver    dissolves    best    in 
dilute  Nitric    acid. 

Ive  a  fragment  of 

a  silver  five-centB  Hp'Y  boiling,  in  dilute 
Nitric  acid;  divraBPfte  solution  into  two 
parts  for  the  next  two  experiments. 

155.  First  method  of  testing  for 
Silver  and  Copper. 

Experiment. — To  the  first  part  of 
the  solution  of  Experiment  154,.  add  some 

FIG.  35.— Silver  coin  dissolving  in     chlorohydric  acid.      This   precipitates   the 
Silver  as  Argentic  chloride  (AgCl).    Filter, 


Nitric  acid. 


THE  METALLIC  MONADS. 


69 


and  to  the  filtrate,  add  Ammonic  hydrate.      This  forms  a  deep-blue  com- 
pound with  the  Copper,  and  so  shows  the  presence  of  the  latter  metal. 

156.  Second  method  of  testing  for  Silver  and  Copper. 

Experiment.—  In  the  second  part 
of  the  solution  of  Experiment  154,  use 
a  solution  of  common  salt,  in  place  of 
Chlorohydric  acid,  for  precipitating  the 
Silver;  continue  the  experiment  as  in 
Experiment  155.  Common  salt  answers 
the  same  purpose  as  Chlorohydric  acid, 
and  is  cheaper. 

157.  The  metallic  Silver  may 
be  recovered. 

FIG.  ^MP&  precipitate  of 

Experiment. — Remove  from  the  Hechloride. 

filters  of  Experiments  155  and  156  the 
Argentic  chloride  obtained ;  place  it  on  charcoal,  with  some  dry  Potassic 
carbonate ;  fuse  the  mixture  with  a  blow-pipe,  until  glories  of  pure  Silver 
are  obtained.  The  Potassium  of  the  Potassic  carbonate  withdraws  Chlorine 
to  form  Potassic  chloride;  the  Silver  is  thus  liberated. 

/ 

YT          Potassium,  K.    (Kalium.) 

158.  In    nature,    Potassium    exists    in    many   minerals. 
The  metal  itself  is  very  difficult  of  preparation  because 
of  its  intense  affinity  for  Oxygen  ;  even  when  once  pre- 
pared, it  quickly  absorbs  Oxygen  from  air,  or  even  from 
water.     The  metal  must  be  preserved  under  some  oil  that 
contains  no  Oxygen. 

In  the  arts,  a  wniliar  source  of  Potassium  is  wood- 
ashes.  The  following-named  compounds  are  well  known 
and  largely  used — 


Potassic  carbonate,  K2  C  O 

Potassic  chlorate,  K  Cl  (X 

Potassic  di-chromate,  K2  Cr2 

Potassic  hydrate,  K  O  H 

Potassic  nitrate.  K  N  O  , 


(also  called  Bi-chrome) ; 
(also  called  Caustic  potash) ; 
(also  called  Nitre  and  Saltpetre). 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


159.  Potassic  carbonate  deliquesces  and  effervesces. 

Experiments. — (a)  Place  a  little  of  the  dry  Potassic  carbonate  in  a 
watch-glass,  and  allow  it  to  stand  for  twenty-four  hours  exposed  to  the  open 
air;  it  has  so  strong  an  attraction  for  the  moisture  of  the  air  that  it  fre- 
quently entirely  liquefies. 

(b)  Add  a  little  Chlorohydric  acid  to  a  few  fragments  of  Potassic  car- 
bonate, in  a  test-tube,  and  observe  the  effervescence. 


K2C03 


2HC1     =     C02     -f     aKCl     +     H20. 


160.   Potassic  chlorate  (KC1O3)  deflagrates  on  charcoal. 

Expert  Hi^jm  ^^Bhise  a  fragment  of  the  dry  salt  on  charcoal ; 
observe  the  i^H  %>n  of  the  coal,  due  to  the  Oxygen  of  the  salt. 

(b}  Gently^^M  ^^Ir  °^  the  salt  on  clean  porcelain;  a  reaction 
occurs,  but  it  is  hardly  perceptible.  (See  page  40.) 


161.  Potass!!  nitrate   (KNO3)  gives  the  violet  flame- 
color  of  Potassium. 

Experiments. — (a)  and  (b}.     Try  with  this  salt  two  experiments 
similar  to  those  of  Experiment  1 60. 

(c]  Wet  a  Platinum  wire  loop; 
dip  it  in  powdered  Potassic  nitrate; 
then  fuse  the  salt  in  the  Bunsen 
lamp-flame.  Observe  the  violet 
Potassium-color. 

162.  Potassic  di-chromate 

produces  chrome-yellow. 

Experiment.  —  Dissolve  a 
fragment  of  Potassic  di-chromate 
in  water,  and  add  the  liquid  to  a 
solution  of  Plumbic  acetate.  A 
yellow  precipitate  of  Plumbic  chro- 

mate,  also   called    Chrome-yellow    (Pb  Cr  O4)    appears.      (See   Experi- 
ment  173.) 


FIG.  37. — Producing  the  violet  flame-color 
of  Potassium. 


THE   METALLIC  MONADS.  71 

Sodium,  Na.  (Natrium.) 

163.  Distribution  of  Sodium. 

In  nature,  Sodium  exists  in  many  minerals.  The  best 
example  is  Rock-salt  (NaCl). 

In  the  artsy  metallic  Sodium  is  somewhat  used. 

Sodic  hydrate  (NaOH),  called  Caustic-soda,  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  soap ;  Sodic  chloride  (NaCl),  common 
salt,  is  used  for  culinary  and  for  manufacturing  purposes ; 
Sodic  carbonate  (Na2CO3),  called  Soda-ash,  is  used  in  the 
bleaching  of  cotton  goods,  the  scouring*«f^wool,  and  the 
manufacture  of  soap  and  of  glass.  The  consumption  of 
Soda-ash  is  enormous. 

164.  Sodium  salts  afford  a  peculiar  orange  flame-color. 

Experiment. — Heat,  in  the 
lamp-flame,  a  Platinum  wire  which 
has  been  dipped  into  some  powdered 
Sodic  chloride.  Observe  the  yellow 
Sodium  light ;  meanwhile,  hold  near 
the  flame  a  small  bright-red  object — 
e.g.,  a  clear  crystal  of  Potassic  di- 
chromate  (K2  Cr2  O7),  or  a  small 
quantity  of  a  very  concentrated  red 
solution  of  the  same  salt  in  a  test- 
tube.  Notice  that  the  Sodium  flame 
peculiarly  degrades  the  color  of  the  FIG.  38.— Producing  the  orange  flame-color 
Object.  '  of  Sodium. 

Lithium,  JJi. 

165.  Distribution  of  Lithium. 

Lithium  is  rare  both  in  nature  and  in  the  arts. 

166.  Lithium  salts  afford  a  crimson  flame-color. 

Experiment. — Add  a  drop  of  Chlorohydric  acid  to  a  minute  portion 
of  Lithic  carbonate,  in  a  watch-glass.  Dip  a  Platinum  wire  into  the  solu- 
tion, and  then  heat  it  in  the  lamp- flame.  A  magnificent  crimson  flame  is 
characteristic  of  Lithium. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    METALLIC    DYADS.— FIRST 
SECTION. 

Lead; 
Barium,  Strontium,  and  Calcium. 


OUTLINE    OF   THE   FIRST  SECTION. 
Lead. 

Distribution. 

Properties  of  its  salts:    Plumbic  chloride,  white;    Plumbic  iodide, 

yellow;  Plumbic  sulphide,  black;   Plumbic  chromate,  yellow. 
Precipitation  of  metallic  Lead,  by  Zinc. 

Barium. 

Forms  Baric  sulphate,  which  is  very  insoluble. 
Its  salts  afford  green  flame-colors. 

Strontium. 

Forms  Strontic  sulphate. 

Its  salts  afford  red  flame- colors. 

Calcium. 

Distribution. 

Properties  of  Quicklime ;  of  Calcic  chloride ;  of  Calcic  sulphate. 

72 


THE   METALLIC  DYADS.-FIKST  SECTION.  73 


THE  METALLIC  DYADS.—  FIRST  SECTION. 

167.  The  First  Section  of  the  metallic  dyads  includes 
the  following  : 


Name. 

Symbol. 

Ordinary  condition. 

Color.         £ 

SKSSK 

Lead, 

Pb, 

solid, 

bluish-white, 

206. 

Barium, 

Ba, 

solid, 

yellow, 

137. 

Strontium, 

Sr, 

solid, 

yellow, 

87. 

Calcium, 

Ca, 

solid, 

yellow, 

40. 

Lead,  Pb.    (Plumbum.) 

168.  Distribution  of  Lead. 

Lead  occurs,  in  nature,  as  Galena  (Plumbic  sulphide, 
PbS),  and  also  in  many  other  ores. 

In  the  arts,  one  of  its  most  important  uses  is  for  Lead 
pipe ;  another  very  important  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
White  lead  (a  hydrated  Carbonate  of  lead),  which  is  the 
basis  of  nearly  all  paints. 

169.  Plumbic  nitrate  dissolves  in  water. 

Experiment.— Dissolve  some  Plumbic  nitrate,  Pb  (N  O3)2,  in 
water,  and  divide  the  solution,  so  formed,  into  four  parts,  for  the  follow- 
ing four  experiments. 

170.  Plumbic   chloride   is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but 
dissolves  in  hot  water. 

Experiment. — To  solution  of  Plumbic  nitrate,  add  Chlorohydric 
acid;  a  white  crystalline  precipitate  of  Plumbic  chloride  (PbCl2)  appears. 

Pb(NO3)2     -f-     2  H  Cl  Pb  Cl,     +     2fcNO3. 

Allow  the  precipitate  a  few  moments  to  subside;  then  decant  the  clear 
liquid.  To  the  precipitate,  add  some  clean  water,  and, boil ;  the  precipitate 
dissolves  wholly  or  in  part ;  now  allow  the  whole  to  cool,  when  the 
Plumbic  chloride  that  dissolved  will  re-appear  as  feathery  crystals. 

7 


74 


THE    YOUNG  CHEMIST. 


171.  Plumbic  iodide  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  dis- 
solves in  hot  water. 


To   solution    of    Plumbic   nitrate,    add    solution   of 
Potassic  iodide;  a  yellow  precipitate  of  Plumbic  iodide  (Pb  I2)  appears. 


Pb(N03): 


2KI     ±=     Pb  I2     -f     2  K  N  O3. 


Allow  the  precipitate  a  few  moments  to  subside ;  then  decant  the  clear 
liquid.  To  the  precipitate,  add  some  clean  water,  and  boil ;  the  precipi- 
tate dissolves  wholly  or  in  part ;  now  allow  the  whole  to  cool,  when  the 
Plumbic  iodide  will  re-appear  as  golden  crystalline  spangles. 


172.  Sulphuretted-hydrogen  affords  a  delicate  test  for 
Lead. 

Experiment. — To  solution  of  Plumbic  nitrate,  add  some  Sulphur- 
etted-hydrogen as  gas,  or  dissolved 
in  water:  a  black  or  brownish- 
black  precipitate  of  Plumbic  sul- 
phide (Pb  S)  appears. 


Pb(N03)2 

=     Pb  S 


HS 


FIG.  39.—  Passing  Sulphuretted-hydrogen 
gas  into  a  soluti&i  containing  Lead. 


173.  Potassic  di-chromate 
is  used  as  a  test  for  Lead. 

Experiment.  —  To  solution  of 
Plumbic  nitrate,  add  solution  of 
Potassic  di-chromate  :  a  yellow 
precipitate  of  Plumbic  chromate 
(PbCrO4)  appears.  Allow  the  pre- 
cipitate a  few  moments  to  subside, 
and  then  pour  off  the  clear  liquid. 

To  the  precipitate,  add  solution 
of  Sodic  hydrate  until  it  dissolves  ; 
next  add  Acetic  acid;  this  will 
neutralize  the  Sodic  hydrate  which 


dissolved  the  chrome-yellow.     The  latter  will  then  re-appear. 


2Pb(N03)2 


K2Cr2O7     -}-     H2O 
=     2PbCrO4     -f     2  K  N  O3     -f-     2  H  N  O, 


THE  METALLIC  DYADS.— FIRST  SECTION. 


75 


174.  Metallic  Lead  may  be  liberated  from  its  solutions 
by  metallic  Zinc. 

Experiment. — Fill  a  beaker  or 
bottle  nearly  full  of  a  dilute  solution  of 
Plumbic  acetate ;  in  the  solution  suspend 
a  strip  of  metallic  Zinc.  A  portion  of 
the  Lead  is  precipitated  from  the  solution 
in  the  form  of  bright  metallic  flakes  upon 
the  Zinc.  But,  at  the  same  time,  there 
is  dissolved  an  amount  of  metallic  Zinc, 
that  is  chemically  equivalent  to  the  Lead 
precipitated. 


FIG.   40.— The    Lead-tree    precipi- 
tated by  metallic  Zinc. 


Barium, 
175.  Distribution  of  Barium. 

The   most   abundant   natural  form    of  Barium   is  the 
mineral  Heavy-spar.     It  is  Baric  sulphate  (BaSO4). 

In  the  arts.   Baric  •  chloride  (BaCl2)  and   Baric  nitrate, 
Ba(NO3)2  are  considerably  used. 


176.  Barium  and  Sulphuric  acid  are  tests  for  each 
other. 

Experiment.  —  Add  a  drop  of  dilute  Sulphuric  acid  to  a  solution  of 
Baric  chloride.  It  gives  a  milk-white  precipitate  of  Baric  sulphate 
(Ba  S  O4),  which  is  one  of  the  most  insoluble  of  known  substances. 
Hence,  Sulphuric  acid  is  used  as  a  test  for  Barium  compounds,  and,  vice 
versa,  Barium  compounds  are  used  as  a  test  for  Sulphuric  acid. 


Ba  C1 


H2  S  04     ==     Ba  S  04     +     2  H  Cl. 


-a, 


177.  Barium  salts  affb§l  a  green  flame-color. 

Experiment. — Moisten  a  Platinum  wire  loop;  dip  it  in  powdered 
Baric  chloride,  and  then  place  it  in  the  lamp-flame,  and  keep  it  there  for 
some  time.  Barium  salts  impart  a  yellowish-green  color  to  the  flame. 


THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 


178.  Barium  salts  are  used  to  give  the  color  in  green-fire. 

Experiment. — Pulverize  separately,  -with  great  care, 

Baric  nitrate, 
Potassic  chlorate, 
Gum  shellac. 

Then  measure,  in  a  small  dry  test-tube,  an  equal  quantity,  by  bulk, 
of  each  of  the  three  substances.      (It  will  be  found  convenient  to  measure 

the  powdered  Shellac  between 
the  two  white  powders.  The 
quantities  used  are  thus  easier 
distinguished.) 

Now  mix  the  powders  gen- 
tly and  carefully,  but  thoroughly, 
on  a  piece  of  paper.  Place  the 
mixture  in  an  iron  pan,  or  on  a 
wooden  block,  and  set  fire  to  it. 
It  affords  green-fire. 

The  Shellac  is  a  vegetable  sub- 
stance and  contains  Carbon.  The 
combustion  of  this  Carbon  is  sus- 
tained by  the  Oxygen  of  the 
Nitrate  and  Chlorate.  (See  Ex- 
periments 74  and  75.)  At  the 
same  time,  the  Barium  imparts 
the  green  color  to  the  flame. 


FIG.  41. — Green-fire  colored  by  a  salt  of 
Bariutp. 


Strontium,  Sr. 
179.  Distribution  of  Strontium. 

In  nature,  Strontium  is  not  very  abundant ;  in  the  arts, 
Strontic  nitrate,  Sr(NO3)2,  and  Strontic  chloride  (SrCl2) 
are  somewhat  used. 


180.  Strontium 
sulphate. 


forms   a    Sulphate    resembling    Baric 


>ulph 


Experiment. — To  a  solution  of   Strontic  nitrate,  add  some  dilute 
Sulphuric  acid;   a  white  precipitate  of  Slrontic  sulphate  appears. 

Sr(N03)2     +     H2S04     =     SrS04     +     2HNO3. 


THE  METALLIC  DYADS.^fJRST  SECTION. 


181.  Strontium  salts  affprd  a  fed  flame-color. 

Experiment. — Moisten  afilatmum  wire  loop;  dip  it  in  powdered 
Strontic  nitrate,  and  then  place  it  in  the  lamp-flame. 
Strontium  salts  impart  a  deep-red  color  to  the  flame. 

182.  Strontium   salts   are    used    to    give   the   color    in 
red-fire. 

Experiment.  —  Pulverize 
separately,  with  great  care, 

Strontic  nitrate, 
Potassic  chlorate, 
Gum  shellac. 

Then  measure,  in  a  small  dry 
test-tube,  an  equal  quantity,  by 
bulk,  of  the  three  substances. 
Now  mix  the  powders  gently  and 
carefully,  but  thoroughly,  on  a 
piece  of  paper.  Place  the  mix- 
ture in  an  iron  pan,  or  on  a 
wooden  block,  and  set  fire  to  it. 
It  affords  red-fire.  (See  Ex- 
periment 178.) 

Calcium,  Ca. 

183.  Distribution  of  Calcium. 

Calcium  is  a  very  abundant  and  widely  diffused 
substance. 

In  nature,  it  is  the  characteristic  constituent  of  shells, 
marble,  and  limestones,  also  of  gypsum,  bones,  and  many 
other  substances. 

In  the  arts,  it  is  used  in  enormous  quantities  in  such 
compounds  as  lime,  bleaching-powder,  etc. 

184.  Calcic  chloride  is  deliquescent. 

Experiment. — Place  about  a  teaspoonful  of  concentrated  Chloro- 
hydric  acid  in  a  casserole;  drop  a  piece  of  litmus-paper  into  it.  Now  stir 
in  slaked  or  unslaked  quicklime,  little  by  little,  until  the  acid  is  entirely 
neutralized ;  this  point  is  attained  when  the  iitmus-paper  becomes  blue. 
Filter  the  whole  mass.  The  clear  filtrate  contains  the  Calcic  chloride. 
Ca  O2  H2  +  2  H  Cl  Ca  Cl,  -  2  H,  O. 

7      I 


42. — Red-fire  colored  by  a  salt  of 
Strontium. 


78  THE    ^pUNG    CHEMIST. 

Now  evaporate  the  solution  to  dryness,  and  allow  the  dry  residue  to 
remain,  for  twenty-four  hours,  exposed  Ufsthe  air.  Calcic  chloride  has  so 
strong  an  attraction  for  moisture  that  it^oon  absorbs  from  the  atmosphere 
water  enough  to  liquefy  itself. 


alcic   chloride  may  be  changed  back  to  Calcic 
carbonate. 

Experiment.—  Add  some  water  to  the  Calcic  chloride  afforded  by 
Experiment  184.  Now  add  Ammonic  hydrate  and  Ammonic  carbonate 
solution.  5  A  white  precipitate  of  Calcic  carbonate  (CaCO3)  is  formed. 

CaCl2     +     (NH4)2C03     =     CaC03     +     2  N  H4  Cl. 

186.  A  paste  of  plaster  of  Paris  quickly  "  sets." 

Experiment.  —  Mix  some  plaster  of  Paris  (Calcic  sulphate,  Ca  SO4) 
with  water  so  as  to  make  a  stiff  paste.    Observe  how  quickly  the  paste  now 
"sets"  to  a  solid  mass.      (Make  the  paste  on  a  piece  of  stiff  paper.) 
'  I 

187.  Alcohol  expels  Calcic  sulphate  from  its  solution 
in  water. 

Experiment.  —  Place  a  very  small  quantity  of  plaster  of  Paris  in  a 
test-tube.  Add  cold  water  and  shake  the  tube,  so  as  to  favor  the  solution 
of  the  Calcic  sulphate.  Filter,  and  to  the  clear  filtrate  add  its  bulk  of 
Alcohol  ;  a  white  precipitate  will  appear.  It  is  Calcic  sulphate,  which  is 
slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  is  much  less  so  in  presence  of  Alcohol. 

188.  Quicklime  and  water  unite  with  evolution  of  great 
heat. 

Experiment.  —  Pulverize  some  fresh  Quicklime  ;  place  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  it  in  a  casserole  half-full  of  warm  water  ;  the  Lime  gradually 
unites  with  the  water,  forming  Calcic  hydrate  and  affording  great  heat. 

CaO     -f     H20     =     Ca02H2. 


CHAPTER    VI.    (Continued) 

THE   METALLIC  DYADS.— SECOND 
SECTION. 


Mercury 


Mercury  and  Copper; 
Magnesium,   and   Zinc. 


OUTLINE    OF  THE  SECOND  SECTION. 


Distribution. 

Mercurous  salts  differ  from  Mercurio  salts. 

Metallic  Mercury  is  precipitated  by  Copper  and  by  Zinc. 

Properties  of  Mercuric  iodide  and  Mercuric  sulphide. 

Copper. 

Distribution. 

It  conducts  heat  well;  is  difficult  of  fusion. 
Metallic  Copper  is  precipitated  by  metallic  Iron. 
Several  tests  for  Copper. 

Magnesium. 

Distribution. 

I  It  burns  in  air,  giving  dazzling  light. 
-It  dissolves  readily  in  acids. 

Tests  for  Magnesium. 


Ives  readi 


Zinc. 

Distribution. 

It  burns  readily ;  dissolves  readily. 

Tests  for  Zinc. 

79 


8o 


THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 


THE  METALLIC 

189.  The  Second  Se 
the  following : 


— SECOND  SECTION. 

n  of  the  metallic  dyads  includes 


Name. 

Symbol. 

Ordinary  condition. 

Color. 

Approximate 
Atomic  ivei^nt. 

Mercury, 

Hg, 

liquid, 

white, 

200. 

Copper, 

Cu, 

solid, 

red, 

63. 

Magnesium, 

Mg, 

solid, 

white, 

24. 

Zinc, 

Zn, 

solid, 

bluish-white, 

65. 

and 


Mercury,  Hg.    (Hydrargyrum,.) 

190.  Distribution  of  Mercury. 

Mercury  is  found,  in  nature,  both  as  native  Mercury  i 
as  Cinnabar  (Mercuric  sulphide,  HgS). 

In  the  arts,  metallic  Mercury  is  largely  used,  as  is  also 
Vermilion  (HgS).  Corrosive  sublimate  is  Mercuric  chlo- 
ride (HgCl2). 

CAUTION. — Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  metallic  Mercury,  or  its  solu- 
tions, from  coming  in  contact  with  finger-rings  or  other  jewelry.     Mercury 
quickly  alloys  itself  with  Gold  and  with  other 
metals,  and  produces  stains  upon  them. 

191.  Mercuric  nitrate  and  its. 
properties. 

Experiment. — Dissolve,  completely,  a 
small  globule  of  Mercury,  by  boiling  it  in  con- 
centrated Nitric  acid.  Mercuric  nitrare  is 
formed,  Hg  (N  O3)2. 

Divide  the  solution  into  two  parts. 
To  the  first  portion,  add  a  few  drops  of  Chlo- 
rohydric  acid ;  no  precipitate  should  appear,  be- 
cause  Mercuric  chloride  (HgCl2)  is  soluble. 

To  the  second  portion,  add  Chlorohydric 
acid,  and  then  Ammonic  hydrate;  a  white  precipitate  (Amido-mercuric 
chloride,  N  H2  Hg  Cl)  appears. 


FIG.  43. — Mercury  dissolving 
in  Nitric  acid. 


THE   METALLIC  DYADS.— SECOND   SECTION.         8 1 

192.  Mercurous  nitrate  and  its  properties. 

Experiment. — Dissolve,  only  partially,  a  globule  of  Mercury,  by 
warming  it  in  Nitric  acid.  Mercurous  nitrate  is  formed,  Hg2  (N  O3)2. 

Dilute  the  solution,  and  then  add  a  little  diluted  Chlorohydric  acid;  a 
white  precipitate  of  Mercurous  chloride  (Hg.2  C12)  should  appear.  Filter, 
and  to  the  white  precipitate  on  the  filter,  add  Ammonic  hydrate ;  a  black 
precipitate  should  be  formed — Amido-mercurous  chloride  (N  H.2  Hg2  Cl). 

193.  Metallic  Copper  precipitates  metallic  Mercury. 

Experiment. — To  a  solution  of  Corrosive'  sublimate,  add  a  few 
strips  of  Copper  wire,  which  have  been  previously  cleaned  by  immersion, 
first  in  Nitric  acid  and  afterward  in  water ;  the  wires  soon  become  coated 
with  a  film  of  Mercury,  which,  if  not  already  bright  and  silvery,  may  be 
made  so  by  gentle  rubbing  with  a  cloth. 

Cu2     4-     HgCl2     =     CuHg     4-     CuCl2. 

Dry  the  wires  with  filter-paper;  place  them  in  a  narrow  blow-pipe  tube; 
heat  them  gently  for  a  short  time.  The  Mercury  will  volatilize  from  the 
Copper  in  vapors,  which  will  condense  to  minute  globules  of  liquid  Mer- 
cury in  the  upper  part  of  the  tube. 


194.  Metallic  Zinc  precipitates  metallic  Mercury. 

Experiment. — Try  the  same  ex- 
periment as  193,  only  employ  Zinc  in 
place  of  Copper,  and  observe  that  the 
coating  of  Mercury  renders  the  Zinc 
very  brittle. 


Zn2 


Zn  Hg     -f 


195.  Mercuric  iodide  changes 
in  color  from  salmon  to  scar- 
let. 

FIG.  44.  —  Preparation  of  Mercuric 

^Experiment.  —  To  a  solution   of  iodide. 

Corrosive   sublimate,  add,  carefully,  a 
solution  of  Potassic  iodide.     Mercuric  iodide  (Hg  I2)  is  formed. 


HgCl. 


-     2  K  I     = 
F 


HgI2 


a  K  Cl. 


82  THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 

The  Mercuric  iodide  goes  through  a  series  of  delicate  changes  of  color, 
from  salmon  to  scarlet.  Strangely  enough,  the  precipitate  is  soluble  in  an 
excess  either  of  Mercuric  chloride  or  of  Potassic  iodide. 

196.  Mercuric  sulphide,  after  some  changes  of  color, 
becomes  black. 

Experiment, — To  a  solution  of  Corrosive  sublimate,  add  some  Sul- 
phuretted-hydrogen as  gas  or  dissolved  in  water.  Precipitates  varying  from 
yellow  to  black  may  occur.  They  all  contain  more  or  less  Mercuric  sul- 
phide (Hg  S). 

HgCl2     +     H,  S    =    HgS     +     2HC1. 


Copper,  Cu.    (Cuprum.} 
197.  Distribution  of  Copper. 

Copper  occurs,  in  nature,  in  a  great  number  of  forms. 
Copper  pyrites — a  double  sulphide  of  Copper  and  Iron — 
is  the  most  important. 

In  the  arts,  next  to  the  metal  itself,  the  most  important 
form  is  Cupric  sulphate  (CuSO4),  also  called  Blue  vitriol. 


'  198.  Copper  pyrites  gives  off  Sulphur,  when  roasted. 


.  —  Powder  a  few  fragments  of  Copper  pyrites  and  then 
heat  them  in  a  blow-pipe  tube,  and  observe  the  Sulphur  afforded. 


FlG.  45. — Observing  the  great  difference  between  Copper  and  Platinum,  as  t»  their 
power  of  conducting  heat. 


THE   METALLIC  DYADS.— SECOND   SECTION.         83 


199.  Metallic  copper  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat. 

Experiment*  —  Hold  in  one  hand  a  small  Copper  wire,  and  in  the 
other  hand  a  small  Platinum  wire;  now  simultaneously  hold  in  a  lamp- 
flame  the  disengaged  ends  of  the  wires,  and  observe  the  difference  in  the 
conducting  powers  of  the  metals. 

200.  Metallic   Copper  is  not  easily  fusible  before  the 
blow-pipe. 


.  —  Try  to  fuse  a  fragment  of  Copper  wire  before  the  blow- 
pipe, and  upon  a  charcoal  support.     The  metal  is  difficult  of  fusion. 

201.  Metallic  Iron  precipitates  metallic  Copper. 

Experiment.  —  To  a  solution  of  Cuppic  sulphate,  add  a  few  drops 
of  Chlorohydric  acid.-    Now  clean  an  Iron  nail,  or  piece  of  Iron  wire,  K" 
rubbing  it  with  a  cloth  dipped  in  Chlorohydric  acid.    Immerse  the 
Iron  in  the  Copper  solution,  and  allow  the  whole  to  stand  until  a 
able  deposit  of  metallic  Copper  appears  on  the  Iron. 

CuSO,     4-     Fe  Fe  S<X     —     Cu. 


202.  Copper  dissolves  slowly  in  Sulphury  acid,  giving 
off  fumes  of  Sulphur  di-oxide  (SO2). 

Experiment. — Add  some  concentrated  Sulphuric  acid  to  some 
strips  of  Copper  wire.  Now  heat  wiih  great  care.  The  Copper  dissolves 
slowly,  evolving  the  choking  fumes  of  Sulphurous  anhydride ^HjfSO  , 

Cu     -     2H2SO4     =•     CuSO4     +     aH2O 


203.  Ammonic  hydrate  is  used  as  a  test  for  Copper. 

Experiment. — Dissolve  a  fragment  of  Cupric  sulphate  in  water; 
filter,  and  to  the  filtrate  add  Ammonic  hydrate.  If  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
the  alkali  is  added,  a  clear  and  deep-blue  solution  is  obtained.  4b 

204.  Potassic  ferro-cyanide  is  used  as  a  test  for  Copper. 

Experiment. — To  a  solution  of  Cupric  sulphate  add  a 
solution  of  Potassic  ferro-cyanide  (K4  Fe  Cy6).     A  rich  brow 
of  Cupric  ferro-cyanide  appears.     (If  it  is  desired  to  apply  th 


84 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


alkaline   solution,   Acetic   acid  —  in   quantity    sufficient   to   neutralize   the 
alkali  —  must  first  be  added.) 


2CuSO4     -K    K4FeCyfi     =     Cu2  Fe  Cy( 


2K2SO4. 


205.  Sulphuretted-hydrogen  is  used  as  a  test  for 
Copper. 

Experiment. — To  a  very  dilute  solu- 
tion of  Cupric  sulphate,  add  Sulphuretted- 
hydrogen  as  gas  or  its  solution  in  water.  A 
black  precipitate  of  Cupric  sulphide  (Cu  S) 
appears. 

206.  A  process  of  testing  Cop- 
per pyrites  for  Copper. 

Experiment. — Grind  a  few  fragments 
of  Copper  pyrites  to  a  very  fine  powder. 
Place  the  powder  in  a  test-tube,  and  after 
adding  a  little  Aqua-regia,  boil  for  a  few 
minutes.  Next,  pour  both  liquid  and  sedi- 
ment into  a  casserole  containing  water. 
Warm  the  solution,  and  filter  it. 

To  the  clear  filtrate,  add  an  excess  of  Ammonic  hydrate.  This  should 
precipitate  the  Iron  and  some  other  substances,  but  should  dissolve  the 
Copper. 

Filter/and  if  the  filtrate  has  a  decided  blue  color,  it  may  be  considered 
as  one  test  for  the  presence  of  Copper  in  the  original  ore.  (See  Experi- 
ment 


-Passing  Sulphuretted- 
gas  into  a  solution 
Copper. 


•     Magnesium,  Mg. 
207.  Distribution  of  Magnesium. 

In  nature,  Magnesium  is  very  abundant.      Dolomites 
(Magnesian  limestones)  and  Soapstones  contain  it. 

arts,  metallic   Magnesium,   Magnesic   sulphate 
5,  MgSO4),  and  calcined  Magnesia  (MgO)  are 


THE   METALLIC  DYADS.— SECOND  SECTION.         85 

208.  Magnesium  wire  or  ribbon  burns  with  dazzling 
light. 

Experiment. — Hold  a  fragment  of  Magnesium  wire  in  a  pair  of 
tweezers,  and  then  light  the  Magnesium  in  the  lamp-flame.  A  white  ash 
of  Magnesic  oxide  (MgO)  is  produced  by  the  combustion. 


FIG.  47. — Magnesium  ribbon  burning,  and  producing  Magnesic  oxide  (Mg  O). 


209.  Magnesium  dissolves  easily  in  acids. 

Experiments. — Dissolve  one  fragment  of  Magnesium  wire  in  dilute 
Hblorohydric  acid;  it  forms  Magnesic  chloride  (MgCl2). 

Dissolve   another   fragment   in   dilute    Nitric   acid ;    it  foi 
nitrate,  Mg  (N  O3)2. 

Dissolve  another  fragment  in  dilute  Sulphuric  acid ;   it  foi 
sulphate  (MgSO4i 


•rms^Magm 
n-ms  Magiu 


Mg 


H,  S  0( 


Mg  S 


210.  Ammonium  salts  have  the  remarkable  power  of 
preventing  the  precipitation  of  ^Magnesium  compounds. 

Experiment. — Dissolve    some    Magnesic    sulphate    in    water,    and 
divide  the  solution  into  two  parts. 

To  theyfrsV  part,  add  Potassic  carbonate ;  a  white  precipitate  appears. 


MgS04 


K.CO. 


MgC  O; 


K2S04. 


. 


86  THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 


To  the  second  part,  add  first  Ammonic  chloride  solution  in  considerable 
quantity,  and  then  Potassic  carbonate;  the  Ammonic  chloride  prevents  the 
formation  of  a  precipitate. 


Zinc,  Zn. 
211.  Distribution  of  Zinc. 

In  nature,  many  different  ores  of  Zinc  are  known. 
Zinc  carbonate  (ZnCO3)  (Smithsonite)  is  an  example. 

In  the  arts,  metallic  Zinc  is  common ;  the  name  gal- 
vanized Iron  is  applied  to  Iron  which  has  received  a 
thin  coating  of  metallic  Zinc. 


2.  Metallic  Zinc  may  be  made  to  burn. 

Experiment. — Heat  a  fragment  of  Zinc  before  the  blow-pipe,  on 
charcoal.     The  metal  actually  burns,  forming  Zinc  oxide  (Zn.  O). 


213.  Zinc  dissolves  easily  in  acids. 


. — Dissolve  one  fragment  of  Zinc  in  dilute  Chlorohy- 
dric  acid'|  it  forms  Zinc  chloride  (Zn  C12). 

Dissolve  another  fragment  in   dilute  Nitric  acid;  it  forms  Zinc  nitrate, 
Zn  (N  03)2. 

Dissolve    another    fragment    in    dilute    Sulphuric   acid ;    it   forms    Zinc 
sulphate  (Zn  S  O4).     (See  Experiments  43,  44,  and  45.) 


214.  Zinc  hydrate  is  precipitated  by  Sodic  hydrate,  but 
it  re-dissolves. 

Experiment. — Dissolve  a  small  quantity  of  Zinc  sulphate  in  water; 
add  some  solution  of  Sodic  hydrate ;  a  white  precipitate  of  Zinc  hydrate 
(Zn  O2  H2)  appears.  Now,  add  a  considerable  excess  of  Sodic  hydrate, 
and  the  Zinc  hydrate  dissolves.  Reserve  this  solution  for  Experiment  215. 


THE  METALLIC  DYADS.— SECOND  SECTION.        87 
215.  Sulphide  of  Zinc  is  white. 

Experiment* — To  the  alkaline  solution,  produced  by  Experiment 
214,  add  Sulphuretted-hydrogen  as  gas  or  dissolved  in  water.  A  white 
precipitate  of  Zinc  sulphide  (Zn  S)  should  appear. 


FIG.  48. — Passing  Sulphuretted-hydrogen  gas  into  a  solution  of  Zinc. 


CHAPTER    VI.     (Concluded^ 

THE    METALLIC    DYADS.— THIRD 
SECTION. 

Cobalt  and  Nickel; 

Iron,  Manganese,  Chromium; 

(and  Aluminum). 


OUTLINE    OF   THE    THIRD   SECTION. 
Cobalt. 

Distribution. 

It  forms  a  black  Sulphide ;  it  gives  a  blue  color  to  Borax  glass. 

Nickel. 

Distribution. 

It  is  attracted  by  the  magnet. 

It  forms  a  black  Sulphide ;  it  gives  a  brown  color  to  Borax  glass. 

fron. 

Distribution. 

Action  of  acids  on  wrought  Iron  and  on  cast  Iron. 

Distinctive  tests  for  Ferrous  and  Ferric  salts. 

Ferrous  compounds  give  bottle-green  colors  to  Borax  glass. 

Manganese. 

Distribution. 

Tests  for  Manganese. 

Manganous  compounds  give  a  purple  color  to  Borax  glass. 
88 


THE   METALLIC  DYADS  — THIRD   SECTION. 


89 


Chromium. 

Distribution. 


Chromic  acid  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent. 
Chromium  compounds  give  a  green  color  to  Borax  glz 


(Aluminum. 

Distribution. 

The  metal  dissolves  in  alkalies. 

Properties  of  Alum.) 


THE  METALLIC  DYADS— THIRD  SECTION. 

216.  The  Third  Section  includes  the  metals  of  the  fol- 
lowing table.  At  different  times  all  except  Aluminum 
are  dyads,  tetrads,  or  hexads.  Aluminum  is  usually  a 
tetrad. 


Name. 

Symbol. 

Ordinary  condition. 

Color. 

Approximate 
Atomic  weight. 

Cobalt, 

Co, 

solid, 

white, 

59. 

Nickel, 

Ni, 

solid, 

white, 

59. 

Iron, 

Fe, 

solid, 

white, 

56. 

Manganese. 

Mn, 

solid. 

white, 

55. 

Chromium, 

Cr, 

solid. 

gray, 

52.5 

(Aluminum, 

Al, 

solid, 

white, 

¥  =  27.5.') 

Cobalt,  Co. 
217.  Distribution  of  Cobalt. 

In  nature,  Cobalt  is  of  somewhat  rare  occurrence ;  even 
in  the  arts  it  has  but  few  uses.  Its  principal  use  is  to 
impart  a  blue  color  to  glass. 

s  * 


90  THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 

218.  Cobalt  forms  a  black  Sulphide. 

Experiment. — To  a  solution  of  Cobaltous  nitrate,  add  first  Ammonic 
hydrate,  and  then  Sulphuretted-hydrogen  as  gas  or  dissolved  in  water.  A 
black  precipitate  (Cobaltous  sulphide,  Co  S)  is  formed. 

Filter,  and  reserve  the  precipitate  for  the  next  experiment. 

Co(NO3)2     +     H2S     =     CoS     -f     zHNOv 


219.  Cobalt  compounds   give  a  blue   color   to    Borax 
glass. 


.  —  Make  a  loop  in  a  Platinum  wire  ;  dip  the  loop  into 
powdered  Borax,  and  then  hold  it  in  the  lamp-flame.  The  Borax  will  lose 
its  water  of  crystallization,  with  frothing  (see  93).  By  heating  sufficiently, 
a  clear  and  colorless  bead  of  Borax-glass  is  prepared. 

Dip  the  bead  into  the  black  precipitate  obtained  by  Experiment  218. 
Then  fuse  again  in  the  lamp-flame.     The  bead  should  become  dark-blue. 


Nickel,  Ni. 
220.  Distribution  of  Nickel. 

Nickel  occurs,  in  nature,  in  small  quantities,  but  in  a 
number  of  ores. 

It  is  widely  used  in  coinage  and  in  Nickel-plating. 


FIG.  49. — Metallic  Nickel  attracted  by  a  magnet. 


THE   METALLIC  DYADS.— THIRD   SECTION.  9 1 

2*21.  Metallic  Nickel  is  magnetic. 

Experiment. — Try  a  fragment  of  metallic  Nickel  with  a  magnet; 
it  is  attracted  strongly. 

222.  Nickel  forms  a  black  Sulphide. 

Experiment. — Dissolve,  in  water,  a  Double  sulphate  of  Nickel  and 
Ammonia  (NiSO4  -f  (NH4)2SO4  +  6H2O);  then  add  Ammonic 
hydrate  and  Sulphuretted-hydrogen  as  gas,  or  dissolved  in  water.  A 
black  precipitate  (Nickelous  sulphide,  NiS)  is  formed.  Reserve  the 
precipitate  for  Experiment  223. 

223.  Nickel  compounds  give  a  brown  color  to  Borax 
glass. 

Experiment. — Fuse,  into  a  fresh  Borax  bead,  some  of  the  black 
precipitate  obtained  by  Experiment  222. 

Compounds  of  Nickel  make  the  bead  violet  while  hot,  and  brown  when 
cold. 

Iron,  Fe.     (Ferrum.) 
221.  Distribution  of  Iron. 

f  It   is   not   probable  that  there   exists  terrestrial  native 
Iron.     But  meteorites  generally  contain  metallic  Iron. 

Many  valuable  oxides  and  other  compounds  of  Iron 
are  found  in  the  earth  as  ores  ;  but  Iron  pyrites  (FeS2), 
although  abundant  and  widely  diffused,  is  an  ore  that 
cannot  be  economically  used  for  the  manufacture  of  Iron. 

In  the  arts,  wrought  Iron,  Steel,  and  cast  Iron  are  of 
immense  importance.  Ferrous  sulphate  (FeSO4,  also 
called  Green  vitriol  and  Copperas)  is  largely  used. 

225.  The  action  of  acids  on  wrought  Iron. 

Experiment.— Prepare  three  test-tubes;  in  them,  boil  portions  of 
wrought  Iron  (carpet-tacks)  in  Chlorohydric  acid,  in  Nitric  acid,  and  in 
Sulphuric  acid  respectively.  Observe  the  differences  in  the  action  of  the 
solvents. 

Fe     -      2HC1  Fed,  H2. 


92  THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 


.  The  action  of  acids  on  cast  Iron. 

Experiment. — Try   an    experiment    like    225,    only   use   cast  Iron 
turnings  in  place  of  wrought  Iron. 


227.  Iron  forms  Ferrous  and  Ferric  salts. 

Experiments. — (a)   Prepare  a  Ferrous  solution  by  dissolving  some 
clean  crystals  of  Ferrous  sulphate  (Fe  S  O4)  in  water  without  heating. 

(b]  Prepare   a  Ferric   solution   by  dissolving   Ferrous  sulphate  in  hot 

water,  and  then  adding  Nitric  acid,  and  finally  boiling  the  whole.  Ferric 

sulphate,  Fe ,(  S  O4 !  3.  and  Ferric  nitrate,  Fe 2f  N  O3)  a,  are  formed.  Dilute 
the  solution  for  subsequent  use. 


228.  The  action  of  Ammonic  hydrate  upon  Iron  solu- 
tions. 

Experiments.  —  (a)  Add  Ammonic  hydrate  to  a  portion  of  Ferrous 
solution.     Ferrous  hydrate  is  produced. 

FeS04     -f-     2NH4OH  Fe  O2  H2     +     (N  H4)2  S  O4. 

(b)  Add  the  same  to  a  portion  of  Ferric  solution.     Ferric  hydrate  is 
produced. 

Fe2  (S  04)3    f  6  N  H4  O  H  =  Fe2  O6  H6  +  3  (N  H4)2  S  O4. 


229.  Potassic  ferro-cyanide  is  a  test  for  Ferric  salts  only. 

Experiments.  —  (a)  Add  solution 
of  Potassic  ferro-cyanide  (K4  Fe  Cy6) 
to  a  portion  of  Ferrous  solution.  A 
pale  bluish-  white  precipitate  is  pro- 
duced. 

(b]  Add  the  same  to  a  portion  of 
Ferric  solution.  Prussian-blue  (Ferric 
ferro-cyanide)  is  produced. 


230.  Potassic  ferri-cyanide  is 

FIG.  so-Producing  Prussian-blue.  a  tCSt  for  FerrOUS  salts  Only. 

Experiments. — (a)  Add  solution 

of  Potassic  ferri-cyanide  (K3  Fe  Cy6)  to  a  portion  of  Ferrous  solution. 
A  deep-blue  precipitate,  called  TurnbulPs  blue,  is  produced. 


THE  METALLIC  DYADS.— THIRD   SECTION. 


93 


(£)  Add   the  same   to   a   portion  of  Ferric  solution;    a  reddish-brown 
coloration,  but  no  precipitate,  is  produced. 


231.  Potassic  sulpho-cyanate  is  a  test  for  Ferric  salts 
only. 


.  —  (a)  Add  solution  of  Potassic  Milpho-cyanate  (KSCy  i 
to  a  portion  of  Ferrous  solution.     No  change  of  color  is  produced. 

(6)  Add  the  same  to  a  portion  of  Ferric  solution.     A  blood-red  colora- 
tion, but  no  precipitate,  is  produced. 

232.  Metallic    Iron    is    infusible,  except   at   very   high 
temperatures. 

Experiment.—  Try  to  fuse 
fragments  of  wrought  Iron  and 
of  cast  Iron,  respectively,  on  char- 
coal. 


233.  Ferrous  compounds 
give  bottle-green  colors  to 
Borax  glass. 

Experiment. — Fuse,  into  a 
Borax  bead,  a  minute  fragment  of       FIG.  51.— Testing  for  Iron  by  a  Borax  bead. 
Ferrous  sulphate ;    colors  are  pro- 
duced varying  from  yellow  or  bottle-green  to  dark-red,  according  to  the 
conditions  of  the  experiment. 


Manganese,  Mn. 
234.  Distribution  of  Manganese. 
Perhaps  the  most   common   and    most   useful   not 


form   of  Manganese   is   Pyrolusite  (Manganes 
MnO2). 

In  the  arts,  it  is  used  in  the  form*  of  Manganous  sul- 
phate (MnSO4)  and  Potassic  per-manganate  (K^MfljOj). 


94  THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 

235.  Three  tests  for  Manganese. 

Experiments.  —  (a)  To  a  solution  of  Manganous  sulphate,  add  Am- 
monic  hydrate,  and  then  Sulphuretted-hydrogen  as  gas,  or  dissolved  in 
water;  a  flesh-colored  precipitate  of  Manganous  sulphide  is  formed  (MnS). 
Upon  exposure  to  air  the  sulphide  becomes  brown.  Filter,  and  save  the 
precipitate  for  Experiment  (£). 

(b]  Dry  the  precipitate    from  Experiment  (a),  and  then  fuse    i^  on  a 
Platinum  foil  with  a  mixture  of  dry  Potassic  nitrate  and  Potassic  carbonate  ; 
a  green  salt,  Potassic  manganate  (K2  Mn  O4)  is  formed.     Proceed  imme- 
diately to  Experiment  (c). 

(c)  Place  in  a  test-tube,  half-full  of  water,  the  product  of  Experiment 
(6)  —  both  the   Platinum  and  the  materials  that  are  upon  it.     Warm  the 
whole,  gently,  for  a  few  moments,  and  then  allow  it  to  stand  in  quiet  until 
the  insoluble  part  subsides;  the  solution  should  have  a  reddish  or  purple 
color,  owing  to  the  formation  of  a  small  quantity  of  Potassic  per-manganate. 
(This  solution  should  not  be  filtered  through  paper;  the  latter  decomposes 
the  Potassic.  per-manganate  sought.) 

236.  Potassic  per-manganate  (K2Mn2O8)  is  a  powerful 
oxidizing  agent. 

Experiment.  —  Dissolve  some  Crystals  of  Potassic  per-manganate  in 
water.  To  this  solution,  add  a  solution  of  Ferrous  sulphate  and  some 
Sulphuric  acid. 

The  Potassic  per-manganate  oxidizes  Ferrous  sulphate  to  Ferric  sulphate, 
itself  becoming  de-oxidized  to  Manganous  sulphate,  and  the  entire  solution 
thereby  becoming  nearly  or 


237.  Manganous  compounds  give  a  purple  color  to 
Borax  glass. 

Experiment.  —  Make  a  clear  and  colorless  Borax  bead  on  Platinum 
wire;  into  this  bead  fuse  some  Manganese  di-oxide;  the  bead  should 
acquire  a  violet  or  purple  color. 


Chromium,  Cr. 

238.  Distribution  of  Chromium. 

In  nature,  the   most  important  form  of  Chromium   is 
Chrome-iron  ore  (Ferroso^chromic  oxide,  FeCr2Oj. 


THE   METALLIC  DYADS.— THIRD   SECTION*       95 

In  the  arts,  Potassic  di-chromate  (K2Cr2O7)  is  its  most 
important  form. 

239.  Preparation  of  Chromic  acid. 

Experiment, — Make  a  concentrated  solution  of  Potassic  di-chromate 
by  boiling  some  of  the  powdered  salt  in  a  small  quantity  of  water;  filter 
white  hot;  to  the  filtrate,  add  very  carefully  about  its  bulk  of  concen- 
trated Sulphuric  acid.  Allow  the  solution  to  cool,  when  dark-red  crystals 
of  Chromic  acid  should  appear. 

240.  Chromic  acid  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent. 

Experiment. — Make  a  solution  of  a  small  quantity  of  Potassic 
di-chromate;  to  it,  add  a  small  quantity  of  Sulphuric  acid;  now  add 
Alcohol,  drop  by  drop,  with  great  care. 

The  red  color,  due  to  Chromic  acid  (see   Experiment  239),  quickly 
changes  to  a  beautiful  green.     This  change  is  due  to  the  oxidizing  power  4 
of  the  Chromic  acid,  and  the  reducing  action  of  the  Alcohol.     The  green 
substance  is  Chromic  sulphate,  Cr2  (S  O4)3. 

(Proceed  to  use  this  product  for  Experiment  241.1 

24:1.  Ammonic  hydrate  is  a  test  for  Chromic  salts,  but 
not  for  Chromates. 

Experiments*.— (a)  Carefully  evaporate,  to  one-half  its  bulk,  the  solu- 
tion formed  by  Experiment  240.  Dilute  the  residue  with  water.  To  the  clear 
green  solution,  add  Ammonic  hydrate.  A  dull-green  precipitate  of  Chromic 
hydrate  (Cr2  O6  H6J  appears.  (The  color  is  recognized  after  boiling.) 

Cr2(S04)3     -    6NH4OH    :.    Cr2O6Hc     -    3(NH4)2SO4. 

(b]  To  a  clear  solution  of  Potassic  di-chromate,  add  Ammonic  hydrate. 
No  visible  chemical  change  takes  place. 

2-42.  Potassic  di-chromate  is  an  oxidizing  agent. 

Experiment. — Make  a  solution  of  Potassic  di-chromate  in  water. 
Pour  a  few  drops  of  the  solution  upon  a  clean  filter-paper.  Carefully  dry 
the  filter-paper  over  the  lamp.  When  quite  dry,  apply  a  burning  match  to 
the  edge  of  the  paper.  It  burns  steadily,  but  without  flame,  and  leaves 
a  green  tea-like  ash.  The  combustion  is  assisted  by  the  Oxygen  of  the 


96  THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 

Potassic  di-chromate,  but  it  is  retarded  by  the  other  constituents  of  the 
compound.  The  green  color  of  the  ash  is  due  to  the  formation  of  some 
compound  of  Chromium. 

243.  Chromium  compounds  give  a  green  color  to 
Borax  glass. 

Experiment.  —  Make  a  clear  and  colorless  Borax  bead  on  a  platinum 
wire;  into  it,  fuse  a  minute  crystal  of  Potassic  di-chromate;  an  emerald- 
green  color  is  produced. 


Aluminum,  Al. 
244.  Distribution  of  Aluminum. 

Compounds  of  Aluminum  are  among  the  three  or  four 
most  abundant  mineral  materials  in  the  earth.  Clay,  a 
complex  silicate  of  Aluminum,  is  an  example. 

Alum  (Double  sulphate  of  Aluminum  and  ammonium), 
A12(SO4)3  -f  (NHJ2SO4  +  24H2O,  is  very  largely  used  in 
dyeing.  The  metal  Aluminum  is  slightly  used. 


245.  Alum  easily  forms  crystals. 

Experiment.  —  Pulverize  some  Alum.  Dissolve  a  considerable 
quantity  of  it,  by  boiling  it  in  a  small  quantity  of  water.  Filter,  and  allow 
the  filtrate  to  stand  at  rest  for  twenty-four  hours.  The  Alum  should  form 
crystals  upon  cooling. 

246.  Ammonia  may  be  detected  in  Alum. 

Experiment.  —  There  are  many  kinds  of  Alum.  Dissolve  a  frag- 
ment of  ordinary  Alum  in  water.  Now  test  the  solution  for  Ammonia-gas, 
as  described  in  Experiment  99.  The  Ammonia-gas  will  probably  be  dis- 
covered, since  Ammonia-alum  is  that  generally  ysed-tit  present. 

247.  Aluminic  hydrate  dissolves  in  alkalies. 

Experiment.  —  Dissolve  a  small  crystal  of  Alum  in  water;  add  a  few 
drops  of  solution  of  Sodic  hydrate,  and  boil  ;  a  flaky  precipitate  of  Aluminic 


THE  METALLIC  DYADS.— THIRD  SECTION. 


97 


hydrate  (A12O6H6)  appears.  Now  add  considerably  more  Sodic  hydrate, 
and  boil  again ;  the  precipitate  is  soluble  in  a  considerable  excess  of  the 
alkali. 


FIG.  52. — Crystals  of  Alum. 

248.  Even  metallic  Aluminum  dissolves  in  alkali. 

Experiment. — Boil  a  fragment  of  Aluminum  in  a  solution  of  Sodic 
hydrate ;  it  dissolves,  evolving  Hydrogen  gas  and  producing  Sodic  alumi- 
nate  (Na2Al2O4). 

9  G 


CHAPTER    VII. 

THE  METALLIC  TRIADS. 

Bismuth  and  Gold. 


OUTLINE    OF   THE    CHAPTER. 
Bismuth. 

Distribution. 

The  metal  is  brittle. 

Its  solutions  give  white  precipitates  by  mixture  with  water. 

Gold. 

Distribution. 

Test  for  Gold,  by  producing  Purple  of  Cassias. 


THE  METALLIC  TRIADS. 

249.  The  principal  metallic  triads  are  the  following 


Name.  Symbol.       Ordinary  condition.  Color. 

Bismuth,  Bi,  solid,  reddish-white,  210. 

Gold,  Au,  solid,  yellow,  196. 


THE   METALLIC   TRIADS. 


99 


Bismuth,  Bi. 
250.  Distribution  of  Bismuth. 

Bismuth  and  its  compounds  are  comparatively  rare  in 
nature  and  in  the  arts. 

%251.  The  metal  is  brittle. 

Experiment. — Pulverize  a  fragment  of  metallic  Bismuth ;   observe 
that  it  is  brittle,  while  most  metals  are  malleable. 


252.  Bismuth  dissolves  in  Nitric  acid. 


Dissolve  the  powder,  from  Experiment  251,  by 
warming  it  in  dilute  Nitric  acid.  Evaporate 
the  solution  to  a  few  drops,  and  then  pour  it 
into  a  beaker  nearly  full  of  cold  water;  a 
white  precipitate  appears  (Bismuthyl  nitrate, 
[BiO]  N03). 


253.  Bismuthous  sulphide  is  black. 

Experiment. — Dissolve  Bismuthyl  ni- 
trate (BiONO3,  Basic  Nitrate  of  Bismuth) 
in  Chlorohydric  acid ;  then  pour  the  solution 
into  a  beaker  half-full  of  cold  water  ;*a  white 
precipitate  of  Bismuthyl  chloride  (Bi  O  Cl) 
appears.  Add  now  Sulphuretted-hydrogen 
as  gas,  or  dissolved  in  water,  when  a  black 

precipitate  of  Bismuthous  sulphide  (Bi2  S3)  will  be  formed.     Filter,  and 
reserve  the  precipitate. 


FIG.  53. — Bismuth  dissolving 
in  Nitric  acid. 


254.  Metallic  Bismuth  may  be  produced  from  its 
compounds. 

Experiment. — Remove  from  the  filter  the  precipitate  obtained  by 
Experiment  253,  and  then  fuse  it,  on  charcoal,  with  Potassic  carbonate.  A 
metallic  globule  of  Bismuth  should  be  obtained.  Place  it  in  a  mortar,  and 
ascertain  whether  it  is  brittle  or  not. 


IOO 


THE    YOUNG   CHEMIST. 


Gold,  Au.    (AurumJ 
255.  Distribution  of  Gold. 

In  nature,  Gold  is  generally  found  in  the  metallic  or 
uncombined  state.  Although  it  is  very  widely  distributed, 
it  is  nowhere  abundant. 

In  the  arts,  although  employed  for  numberless  pur- 
poses, it  is  almost  invariably  used  in  the  metallic  state. 

256.  Gold  is  detected  by  its 
affording  Purple  of  Cassius, 

Experiment.  —  Dissolve  some 
Gold-leaf  as  described  in  Experiment  112. 
Also,  prepare  a  test-liquid  by  adding  a 
solution  of  Stannous  chloride  to  a  solu- 
tion of  Ferric  chloride.  (Ferric  chloride 
may  be  produced  by  dissolving  a  few 
fragments  of  fine  Iron  wire  in  Chloro- 
hydric  acid,  then  adding  a  few  drops  of 
Nitric  acid,  and  boiling  for  a  minute.) 
Now  add  a  few  drops  of  the  Gold  solu- 
tion to  the  test-liquid.  A  precipitate 

called  Purple  of  Cassius  appears ;  it  varies  in  color,  being  brown,  blue, 
purple,  or  black,  according  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  produced. 


FIG.  54.  —  Detecting    Gold    by  pro- 
ducing  Purple  of  Cassius. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE    METALLIC    TETRAD, 

Platinum. 


OUTLINE    OF   THE   CHAPTER. 

Platinum. 

It  occludes  gases. 

It  dissolves  in  Aqua-regia. 


THE  METALLIC  TETRAD. 

257.  The  principal  metallic  tetrad  is  the  following : 


Name.  Symbol.  Ordinary  condition.  Color.  Atomic  wight. 


Platinum,  Pt,  solid,  white,  197. 


258.  Distribution  of  Platinum. 

In  nature,  Platinum  occurs  in  the  metallic  state,  in  the 
condition  of  an  alloy  with  certain  other  metals. 

In  the  arts,  it  has  valuable  applications ;  it  is  generally 
used  in  the  metallic  form. 

9*  101 


102 


THE    YOUNG    CHEMIST. 


• 


259.  Platinum  re-lights  an  extinguished  gas-jet. 

Experiment. — Heat  a  piece  of  tolerably  clean  Platinum  foil  in  a 
Bunsen  lamp-flame.  Now  stop  the  gas,  and  soon  let  it  flow  anew  against 
the  Platinum.  The  metal  quickly  becomes  red-hot,  and  often  re-lights  the 
gas.  The  Platinum  absorbs,  or  occludes,  upon  its  surfaces,  both  the  coal- 
gas  and  the  Oxygen  of  the  air ;  the  two  substances  are  thus  brought  within 
the  range  of  chemical  affinity,  and  so  they  unite,  affording  heat  and  light. 

When  illuminating-gas  is  not  at  hand,  the  experiment  may  be  performed 
as  follows :  Boil  some  water  in  a  Casserole  or  a  beaker.  Move  the  lamp 
to  a  safe  distance.  In  the  hot  water,  place  a  small  beaker  containing 
alcohol ;  the  upper  part  of  the  beaker  soon  fills  with  vapor  of  alcohol. 
Now  make  a  coil  by  winding  a  Platinum  wire,  in  a  close  spiral,  around  a 
lead-pencil.  Heat  the  spiral  in  a  lamp-flame;  then  suspend  it  in  the 
alcohol  vapors  previously  described.  The  wire  should  continue  to  glow, 
by  reason  of  a  slow  combustion  of  the  alcohol  vapors. 


FIG.  55. — Metallic  Platinum  producing  a  flameless  combustion  of  Alcohol  vapor. 

260.  Platinum  dissolves  in  Aqua-regia. 

Experiment. — Dissolve  a  small  fragment  of  Platinum  wire  in  Aqua- 
regia.  Evaporate  the  solution  nearly  to  dryness;  dilute  this  procruct 
slightly  with  water.  Add  a  solution  of  Ammonic  chloride  (N  H4  Cl). 
A  yellow  crystalline  precipitate  of  Ammonio-platinic  chloride  appears, 
(N  H4)2  Pt  C16.  It  proves  the  presence  of  Platinum  in  the  solution. 


APPENDIX. 


LIST  OF   SUPPLIES 

NEEDED  FOR  THE  PERFORMANCE  OF  THE  EXPERIMENTS  DESCRIBED  IN 
"THE  YOUNG  CHEMIST." 


1.  Alum,  (NH4)2S04,A12(S04)3. 

2.  Aluminum,  Al. 

3.  Ammonic  carbonate,  (NH4)2  C  O3. 

4.  —  chloride,  N  H4  Cl. 

5.  Antimony,  Sb. 

6.  Argentic  nitrate,  Ag  N  O3. 

7.  Arsenious  oxide,  As2  O3. 


8.  Baric  nitrate, 

Ba(N03)2 

9.  —  chloride, 

Ba  C12. 

10.  Beeswax. 

II.  Bismuth, 

Bi. 

12.  Bismuthyl  nitrate, 

Bi  0  N  03. 

13.  Bleaching  powder, 

[Ca  O2  C12 

14.  Borax, 

Na3  B4  07. 

15.  Calcic  carbonate  (marble), 

Ca  C  O3. 

1  6.  —  sulphate, 

Ca  S  O4. 

17.  Carbon  di-sulphide, 

CS2. 

-    Charcoal, 

C. 

18.  —  animal, 

C. 

19.  Cobaltous  nitrate, 

Co  (N03)2. 

20.  Copper  (wire), 

Cu. 

21.  —  pyrites, 

Cu2S     -f 

22.  —  sulphate, 

Cu  S  O4. 

Ca  C12  -j-  Ca  O2  H2]. 


Fe2S3. 

i- 

23.  Fluor-spar,  Ca  F12. 


103 


IO4  APPENDIX. 


24.  Gold-leaf,  Au. 

25.  Indigo. 

26.  Iodine,  I. 

27.  Iron  pyrites,  Fe  S2. 

28.  —  sulphate,  Fe  S  O4. 

29.  —  sulphide,  Fe  S. 

30.  —  (turnings),  Fe     -f     C. 
31-  —  (wire),  Fe. 

32.  Lead  (sheet),  Pb. 

23.  —  acetate,  Pb  O2  (C2  H3  O)Z' 

34.  —  nitrate,  Pb  (N  O3)2. 

—  Lime  (quick),  Ca  O. 

35.  Lithic  carbonate,  Li2  C  O3 

36.  Litmus-blocks. 

37.  —  paper. 

38.  Magnesium,  Mg. 

39.  —  sulphate,  Mg  S  O4. 

40.  Manganese  di-oxide,  Mn  O2. 

41.  —  sulphate,  Mn  S  O4. 

42.  Mercury  (metallic),  Hg. 

43.  Mercuric  chloride,  Hg  C12. 

44.  —  oxide,  Hg  O. 

—  Nickel  coin,  (Nickel,  Copper,  Zinc). 

45.  —  metallic,  Ni. 

46.  —  double  sulphate  of,     ~) 

and  ammonia,         }     Ni  S  °<     +     (*  H4)2  S  O4. 

47.  Oxalic  acid,  H2  C2  O4     -f     2  H2  O. 


48.  Paraffine, 

49.  Phosphorus,  P. 

50.  Potassium,  K. 

51.  Potassic  bromide,  K  Br. 

52.  —  iodide,  K  I. 

53.  —  carbonate,  K2  C  O3. 

54.  —  chlorate,  K  Cl  O3. 

55.  —  di-chromate,  K2  Cr2  O 


APPENDIX.  105 


56.  Potassic  ferro-cyanide,  K4  Fe  Cy6. 

57.  —  ferri- cyanide,  K6  Fe2  Cy12. 

58.  —  nitrate,  K  N  O3. 

59.  —  per-manganate,  K2  Mn2  Og. 

60.  —  sulpho-cyanate,  K  S  Cy. 

61.  Quill. 

62.  Sand,  Si  O2. 

63.  Shellac. 

—  Silver  coin,  (Silver,  Copper.) 

64.  Sodium,  Na. 

65.  Sodic  chloride,  Na  Cl. 

66.  —  hydrate,  Na  O  H     +     Aq. 

67.  —  silicate,  Na2  Si  O3. 

68.  Stannous  chloride,  Sn  C12. 

—  Starch,  C6  H~0  O5. 

69.  Strontic  nitrate,  Sr  (N  O3)2. 

—  Sugar  (cane),  C12  H22  O^. 

70.  Sulphur,  S. 

—  Sulphuretted-hydrogen 

water,  H2  S. 

71.  Tartar  emetic,  K  Sb  O  H2,  O4,  (C4  H2  O2). 

72.  Tinfoil,  Sn. 

—  Turpentine,  C10  H16. 

73.  Zinc  sulphate,        .  Zn  S  O4. 

74.  —  metallic,  Zn. 


Acid,  Acetic,  H  O  (C2  Hs  O). 

-  Chlorohydric,  H  Cl. 

-  Nitric,  .    H  N  O3. 

-  Sulphuric,  H2  S  O4. 
Alcohol,  Ethylic,  C2  H5  O,  H. 
Ammonic  hydrate,  N  H4  O  H. 


IO6  APPENDIX. 


LIST   OF   APPARATUS 

NEEDED  FOR  THE  PERFORMANCE  OF  THE  EXPERIMENTS  DESCRIBED 
"THE  YOUNG  CHEMIST." 


3  Beakers  (small). 

3  Blocks  (of  wood ;  3x3x1  inches). 

I  Blow -pipe  (brass). 

I  Casserole  (six  ounce). 

Corks. 

I  Cork  (fitted  with  glass-jet). 
i  Crayon. 

I  Crucible  (porcelain). 
25  Filter-papers. 
i  Flask  (plain,  eight  ounce). 
i     —    (side-neck,  two  ounce). 

1  Funnel  (two  inch). 

2  feet  Glass  tubing  (quill  size). 
i  Glass  rod. 

I  Jar  (species). 

i  Lamp,  for  alcohol  (or  for  gas ;  with  tube). 

I  Lamp-chimney. 

i  Lead  cup. 

I  Lead  post  (and  rubber-ring). 

I  Magnet. 

i  Mortar. 

i  Platinum  foil  (one  inch  square). 

I        —        wire  (three  inches). 

I  Retort  (two  ounce,  tubulated). 

1  Rubber  tube. 

12  Test-tubes  (plain,  five-inch). 

2  —     —     (   —     eight  inch). 

I     —     —     (side-neck,  five  inch). 

I     —     —     (hard  glass,  eight  inch). 

i     —    —    (side-neck,  eight  inch). 

6    —    —    (small,  for  blow-pipe). 

I  Test-tube  rack  (for  twelve  tubes). 

I  Taper. 

I  pair  Tweezers. 

i  Tripod  (or  Triangle,  or  Lamp-stand). 

I  Watch-crstal. 


INDEX. 


ACID,  arsenic,  21. 

arsenious,  21. 

boracic,  46,  47,  48. 

carbonic,  63,  64. 

chloric,  19. 

chlorohydric,  32. 
preparation  of,  32. 
tests  for,  33. 

chlorous,  19. 

chromic,  95. 

fluohydric,  29,  30. 

hypochlorous,  19. 

meta-stannic,  66. 

muriatic,  16. 

nitric,  16,  46,  51,  52. 
preparation  of,  54. 
tests  for,  53,  54. 

oxalic,  62. 

perchloric,  19. 

phosphoric,  46,  55. 

silicic,  65. 

sulphuric,  28,  29,  37,  43-45. 
Acids,  19. 

haloid,  18. 
Alcohol,  62. 
Alum,  96. 

Aluminic  silicate,  96. 
Aluminum,  89,  96. 
Amidogen,  48. 
Amido-mercuric  chloride,  80. 

-mercurous  chloride,  81. 
Ammonia-gas,  46,  48-50. 
Ammonic  chloride,  49,  50. 

cyanide,  17. 
Ammonium,  48. 

salts,  50. 
Anhydrides,  18. 
Antimonic  oxide,  57. 
Antimonious  sulphide,  47,  58. 
Antimony,  47,  57. 

and  potassium,  tartrate  of,  57. 
tetroxide,  57. 
Aqua-regia,  53. 


Argentic  bromide,  34. 

chloride,  32. 

iodide,  36. 

nitrate,  32. 
Argentum,  68. 
Arsenic,  47,  55. 

white,  55,  56. 
Arsenious  oxide,  55. 

sulphide,  47,  57. 
Atomic  weights  (table),  13. 
Aurum,  100. 

|  BARIC  chloride,  75. 
nitrate,  75. 
sulphate,  75. 
Barium,  72,  75. 
Base,  21. 
Binaries,  17. 
Black-lead,  60. 
i  Bleaching  with  sulphur,  43. 

powder,  30,  31,  77. 
j  Blue  vitriol,  82. 
Bone,  54. 
Borax,  47,  48. 
Boron,  46,  47. 
Brimstone,  42. 
Bromine,  25,  26,  33. 
preparation  of,  34. 

CALCIC  carbonate,  77,  78. 

chloride,  77,  78. 

fluoride,  29. 

phosphate,  54. 

sulphate,  78. 
Calcium.  72. 
Carbon,  59-61. 

di-oxide,  41,  63,  64. 

mon-oxide,  62. 
Caustic  soda,  71. 
Chlorates,  42. 
Chlorine,  25,  26,  30. 

bleaching  with,  31. 
Chlorine,  preparation  of,  31. 


io8 


INDEX. 


Chrome-iron  ore,  94. 

Hydrogen,  compounds  of,  with  nitro- 

Chromium, 89,  94. 

gen,  46,  48. 

Chrome-yellow.  74. 

Hydro-potassic  sulphate,  21,  54. 

Cinnabar,  80. 

-sodic  sulphate,  32. 

Clav,  Q6. 

v-'1**/  9    y^** 

Coal,  60. 

ILLUMINATING  gas,  61. 

Cobalt,  88,  89. 

Indigo,  45,  51,  61. 

Compound  substances,  12. 
names  of,  15. 

Iodine,  25,  26,  35. 
preparation  of,  34. 

Copper,  79,  82,  83. 
pyrites,  82,  84. 
Copperas,  91. 

Iron  (see  Ferrous,  etc.),  41,  88,  91. 
galvanized,  86. 
magnetic  oxide  of,  41. 

Corrosive  sublimate,  80-82. 

pyrites,  42,  91. 

Cupric  ferro-  cyanide,  83. 
sulphate,  82,  83. 

KALIUM,  69. 

sulphide,  84. 

LAUGHiNG-gas,  50. 

Cuprum,  82. 

Lead,  72-75. 

Cyanogen,  17. 

carbonate  of,  73. 

chloride  of,  73. 

DIAMOND,  60. 

chromate  of,  74. 

Dolomites,  84. 

iodide  of,  74. 

Dyads,  metallic,  72,  79,  88. 

nitrate  of,  73. 

non-metallic,  37. 

sulphide  of,  74- 

Lead-post,  8. 

ELEMENTS,  11-14. 

Lime,  77. 

names  of,  14. 

chloride  of,  30,  31. 

symbols  of,  14. 

11            r 

quick,  78. 

table  of,  13. 

-water,  64. 

Epsom  salts,  84. 

Limestone,  77. 

Ethylene,  61,  62. 
Etching  with  fiuohydric  acid,  30. 

Lithium,  67,  68,  71. 
Litmus,  43. 

FERRIC  compounds,  92,  93. 

MAGNESIA,  84. 

Ferroso-chromic  oxide,  94. 

Magnesic  sulphate,  84. 

Ferrous  compounds,  92,  93. 

Magnesium,  79,  84,  85. 

nitro-sulphate,  53. 

Manganese.  88,  93. 

sulphide,  45. 

di-oxide,  31,  34,  39,  40. 

Ferrum,  91. 

Manganous  chloride,  34. 

Fluorine,  25,  26,  29. 

sulphate,  93. 

Fluor-spar,  29.  30. 

Marble,  63,  77. 

Marsh-gas,  16,  61. 

GALENA,  16,  73. 

Mercuric  chloride,  17,  80. 

Glass,  65. 

iodide,  81. 

Gold,  loo. 

nitrate,  80. 

injured  by  mercury,  80. 

oxide,  39. 

Graphite,  60. 

sulphide,  80,  82. 

Green  fire,  76. 

Mercurous  chloride,  17,  8l. 

Gum-shellac,  76,  77. 

nitrate,  8l. 

Mercury,  79-81. 

HARTSHORN,  spirits  of,  49. 

red  oxide  of,  39. 

Heavy-spar,  75. 

Metallic  dyads,  72,  79,  88. 

Hydrargyrum,  80. 

monads,  67. 

Hydrogen,  25-29. 

tetrad,  101. 

INDEX. 


109 


Metallic  triads,  98. 
Meteorites,  91. 
Methyl  hydride,  61. 
Mixture  (defined),  12. 
Monad,  definition  of,  25. 
Monads,  metallic,  67. 
non-metallic,  25. 

NATRIUM,  71. 
Nickel,  88,  90. 
Nitrates,  41,  48. 
Nitric  anhydride,  50. 
Nitrogen,  46-48. 

and  oxygen,  compounds  of,  46,  50. 

compounds    of,    with    hydrogen, 
46,  48. 

di-oxide,  50,  51. 

pentoxide,  50. 

protoxide,  50. 

tetroxide,  50,  51. 

tri-oxide,  50. 
Nitrous  anhydride,  50. 
Nomenclature,  II,  14. 
Notation,  n,  14. 

OLEFIANT  gas,  61,  62. 
Oxygen,  37-42. 

and  nitrogen,  compounds  of,  46, 
50- 

PAPER,  44. 

Paraffine.  61. 

Phosphoric  anhydride,  55. 

oxide,  55. 

Phosphorus,  46,  47,  54. 
Photographic  "  proof,"  32. 
Plaster  of  Paris,  78. 
Platinum,  29,  101. 
Plumbago,  60. 
Plumbic  acetate,  45. 

carbonate,  73. 

chloride,  73. 

chromate,  74. 

iodide,  74. 

nitrate,  73. 

sulphate,  43. 

sulphide,  16..  45,  73,  74. 
Plumbum,  73. 
Potassic  arsenate,  21. 

bromide,  33. 

carbonate,  63,  69,  70. 

chlorate,  20.  39,  40,  42,  69,  70, 
76,77. 
10 


Potassic  chlorite,  20. 

di-chromate,  69,  70,  71,  95. 

ferro- cyanide,  83. 

ferri-cyanide,  92. 

hydrate,  27,  69. 

hypochlorite,  20. 

iodide,  34-36,  81. 

nitrate,  41,  48,  60,  69,  70. 

oxide,  27. 

perchlorate,  20. 

per-manganate,  93,  94. 

sulpho-arsenate,  21. 

sulpho-cyanate,  93. 
Potassium,  26,  27,  67-69. 
Prefixes,  18. 
Priestley,  Dr.,  39. 
Prussian  blue,  92. 
Purple  of  Cassius,  100, 
Pyrolusite,  93. 

QUARTZ,  64'. 
Quicklime,  78, 
Quill,  51. 

RADICLES,  compound,  17. 
Red-fire,  77. 
Rock  crystal,  65. 
salt,  71. 

SALT,  common,  30. 
Salts,  20. 

acid,  21. 

basic,  21. 

haloid,  18. 

normal,  21. 

sulphur,  21. 
Saltpetre,  48. 
Sand,  64,  65. 
Selenium,  37. 
Sheet-tin,  66. 
Silicates,  65. 
Silicic  fluoride,  30. 

oxide,  30,  65. 
Silicon,  59,  60,  64. 
Silver,  67,  68. 
Smithsonite,  86. 
Snow-crystals,  26. 
Soap-stone,  84. 
Soda-ash,  71. 
Sodic  carbonate,  71. 

chloride,  30,  71. 

hydrate,  27,  71. 

oxide,  27. 


no 


INDEX. 


Sodic  silicate,  65. 

stannate,  66. 

Sodium,  27,  28,  67,  68,71. 
Stannic  oxide,  66. 
Stannous  chloride,  66. 

sulphide,  66. 
Stannum,  66. 
Starch,  35,  36,  44,  60,  62. 

iodide  of,  36. 
Stibium,  57. 
Stibnite,  57. 
Strontic  chloride,  76. 

nitrate,  76,  77. 

sulphate,  76. 
Sugar,  44,  62. 
Sulphur,  37,38,41,42. 
Sulphuretted-hydrogen,  37,  45. 
Sulphurous  anhydride,  83. 

di-oxide,  41,  43,  83. 
Sunlight  on  silver  salts,  32. 
Supports  for  apparatus,  9. 
Symbols,  literal,  14,  16. 

graphic,  15,  1 6,  22,  23. 

glyptic,  15,  17. 

of  acids,  22,  23. 

of  compounds,  16,  17,  22,  23. 

of  salts,  22,  23. 


TARTAR-emetic,  57. 
Teachers,  hints  to,  7. 
Tellurium,  37. 
Ternary  compounds,  91. 
Tetrads,  metallic,  101. 

non-metallic,  59. 
Tin,  59,  60,  66. 
Tin  crystals,  66. 
Titanium,  59,  60. 
Triads,  metallic,  98. 

non-metallic,  46. 
Turnbull's  blue,  92. 
Turpentine,  61. 

VITRIOL,  blue,  82. 
green,  91. 
oil  of,  30. 

WHITE  arsenic,  55,  56. 

lead,  73. 
Wood,  60. 

ZINC,  28,  79, 80,  86. 
carbonate  of,  86. 
sulphate,  29. 
sulphide,  87. 


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BOOK-LIST. 


In  general,  the  first-mentioned  books  in  each  group  are  those  which 
are  most  accessible  to  teachers  of  limited  means,  and  are  at  the  same 
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Serial  Publications. 

Chemical  News.     (William  Crookes,  Ed.)     London  Weekly.     $j  per 
annum.     (Commenced  1860.) 

Boston  Journal  of  Chemistry.  Boston.    Monthly.   $i  per  annum.  (Com- 
menced 1867.) 

Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society.      London.      Monthly.      $10.50  per 
annum. 

Index  to  foregoing.     1841-1872;    pp.263.     (Sold  separately,  $i.) 


Annales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique.    Paris.    Monthly.    ($12  per  annum.) 

Table  des  Tomes  J  a  XXX.     (1841-1851.)     Paris,    pp.  134.     ($2.) 

Table  Analytique  des  Tomes  XXXI  a  LXIX.     3d  Series.     (1851- 

1863.)     Paris,     pp.  474.     ($3.50.) 
Table    des    Noms   d'Auteurs    et   Table    Analytique    des    Matieres. 

(1864-1873.)     4th  Series.     Paris,     pp.249.     ($3-) 
Fresenius,  C.  Remigius. — Zeitschrift  fiir  analytische  Chemie.     Wiesba- 

baden.     (Quarterly,  $3.70  per  annum.)     (Commenced  1862.) 

Index  to  foregoing.     Vols.  I-X. 

"Wagner,   Johannes   R.   v.      Jahres-Bericht  iiber  die  Fortschritte   und 

Leistungen  der  chemischen   Technologic.      Leipzig.      (Annual,  $7.) 

(Commenced  1855;  last  vol.  had  1,143  PP-) 

Index  to  foregoing.     Vols.  I-X. 

"  "  Vols.  X-XX.    (Indexes  sold  separately,  $2.60.) 

Dictionaries  of  Chemistry,  etc. 

Watts,  Henry.  Dictionary  of  Chemistry  and  the  allied  branches  of 
other  sciences.  8  vols.  London.  1866-1875.  (£75.) 

Storer,  Frank  H.  First  Outlines  of  a  Dictionary  of  Solubilities  of 
Chemical  Substances.  Cambridge.  1864.  pp.  713.  ($7.50.) 


SUPPLEMENT— BOOK-LIST. 


Wurtz,  Ad.    Dictionnaire  de  Chimie,  pure  et  appliquee.    3  vols.    Paris. 

1870. 
Fehling,   Hermann  v.     Neues  Handworterbuch  der   Chemie.     $d  vol. 

issued  as  far  as  Jal.     Braunschweig.     1871. 
Clarke,  Frank  Wigglesworth.     The  Constants  of  Nature.     Washington, 

D.  C.     1873.     pp.  265. 

General  Treatises  on  Chemistry. 

Roscoe,  H.  E.,  and  Schorlemmer,  C.     A  Treatise  on  Chemistry.     Lon- 

don.    1878.     Vol.  I,  pp.  771;   Vol.  II,  parts,  I  and  II.     (Now  issuing.) 
Cooke,    Josiah    P.,   Jr.     Principles   of  ChemicaL  Philosophy.     Boston. 

1874.     pp.  600.     (#3.50.) 
Bernays,  Albert  J.     Notes  for  Students  in  Chemistry.     London.     1870. 

pp.  122. 
Bayley,  Thomas.       A  Pocket-Book  for  Chemists.       London.       1878. 

PP-  421.  _  _ 

Frankland,  Edward.  Lecture  Notes  for  Chemical  Students.  Vol.  I, 
Inorganic  Chemistry.  London.  1870.  pp.  220.  Vol.  II,  Organic 
Chemistry.  London.  1872.  pp.252.  ($2  per  vol.  ) 

Gmelin,  Leopold.  (Henry  Watts,  Tr.)  Hand-Book  of  Chemistry.  Printed 
for  the  Cavendish  Society.  14  vols.  1848-1860.  London. 

Graham-Otto's  Ausfiihrliches  Lehrbuch  der  Chemie.  6  vols.  Braun- 
schweig. 1857. 

Chemical  Theory. 

Cooke,  Josiah  P.,  Jr.     The  New  Chemistry.     New  York.     1874.     pp. 

326.       ($2.) 

Remsen,  Ira.  Principles  of  Theoretical  Chemistry.  Philadelphia.  1877. 
PP-  231.  _ 

Tilden,  William  A.     Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Chemical  Philosophy. 

New  York.     1876. 
Wurtz,  Ad.     (Henry  Watts,  Tr.)     History  of  Chemical  Theory.     Lon- 

don.    1869.     pp.  220.     ($2.) 

Chemical  Analysis. 

Fresenius,  C.  Remigius  (Samuel  W.  Johnson,  Ed.)  Manual  of  Quali- 
tative Chemical  Analysis.  New  York.  1869.  pp.  434.  ($5-) 

Fresenius,  C.  Remigius  (Samuel  W.  Johnson,  Ed.)  A  System  of  Instruc- 
tion in  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis.  New  York.  1870.  pp.  631. 


(The  New  York  edition  is  considerably  abridged  from  the  original  German  edition  of 
Fresenius  ;  the  London  edition  is  slightly  abridged.) 

Cairns,    Frederick   A.       Manual   of    Quantitative    Chemical   Analysis. 
New  York.     1880.     pp.  270.     ($2.) 


SUPPLEMENT— BOOK-LIST. 


Elder  hoist's  Manual  of  Qualitative  Blow-Pipe  Analysis.  (H.  B.  Na- 
son  and  C.  F.  Chandler,  Eds.)  Philadelphia.  1873.  PP-312-  ($2-5°-) 

Prescott,  Albert  B.  Outlines  of  Proximate  Organic  Analysis.  New 
York.  1875.  PP-  192.  ($1.75-) 

Ricketts,  Pierre  de  P.    Notes  on  Assaying.    New  York.    1876.   pp.  172. 

Crookes,  William.      Select  Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis.     (Chiefly 

Inorganic.)     London.     1871.     pp.  468.     ($$•) 
Storer,  Frank  H.      A  Cyclopaedia  of  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis. 

Boston.     1870.     pp.  224.     (Not  completed.) 
Brush,  George  J.     Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy.     New  York. 

1875.     PP-  104-     (&J-) 
Dana,  James  D.     A  System  of  Descriptive  Mineralogy.     (5th  ed.,  with 

an  appendix.)     New  York.     1872.     ($10.) 
Wanklyn,  J.  Alfred.       Water  Analysis.      London.     1874.      pp.   182. 

(£2.50.) 
Frankland,    Edward.      Water  Analysis.      London.      1880.     pp.    139. 

($1.750 

Buiisen,  Robert.  (Henry  E.  Roscoe,  Tr.)  Gasometry.  London.  1857. 
pp.  298. 

Applied  Chemistry. 

Ure,  Andrew.     A  Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manufactures  and  Mines.     6th  ed. 

Edited  by  Robert  Hunt.     3  vols.     London.     1867.     ($35  ) 

Supplement  to  above.     1878.     ($12.50.) 

Wagner,  Rudolph  (Wm.  Crookes,  Tr.)      A  Hand-Book  of  Chemical 

Technology.     New  York.     1872.     pp.  745.     ($5.) 
Cooley,    Arnold    P.      A  Cyclopaedia    of    practical   receipts.      2   vols. 

New  York.     1879.     ($9.) 

G-irardin,  J.  Lemons  de  Chimie  elementaire  appliquee  aux  Arts  indus- 
triels.  5  vols.  Paris.  1872.  pp.  507,  686,  616,  344,  536.  ($15.85.) 

O'Neill,  Charles.     A  Dictionary  of  Calico  Printing  and  Dyeing.     Lon- 
don.    1862.     pp.  215.     (New  ed      1869.     Philadelphia.     $6.) 
Percy,  John.     Metallurgy.     London.      1861.     pp.  634. 
Iron  and  Steel.     London.      1864.     pp.  934. 
Lead.     London.     1870.     pp.  567. 
Fuel,  etc.     London.     1875.     PP-  596- 
Art  of  Extracting  Metals  from  their  Ores.     Silver  and  Gold,  part  I. 

London.     1880.     pp.  700.     ($12.) 
Kingzett,  Charles  Thomas.     The  History  of  Products  and  Processes  of 

the  Alkali  Trade.     London.     1877.     pp.  247. 

Johnson,  Samuel  W.  How  Crops  Grow.  New  York.  1868.  pp.  394 
($2.) 

Johnson,  Samuel  W.    How  Crops  Feed.     New  York.     1870.     pp.  375. 


xiv  SUPPLEMENT— BOOK-LIST. 


Unclassified. 

Stewart,  Balfour.     Lessons  in   Elementary   Physics.     London.     1870. 

pp.  372.     (£1.50). 

Stewart,  Balfour.     An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Heat.     London.     1871. 
(£2.50.) 

Cooke,  Josiah   P.      Elements   of    Chemical   Physics.     Boston.     1860. 

PP.  739-     ($5-) 
Ganot,   A.     Traite    de    Physique   experimentale   et   appliquee.     Paris. 

1859.     8th  ed.     pp.  825.     ($2.80.) 

Pickering,   Edward  C.     Elements  of  Physical  Manipulation.     2  vols. 
New  York.     1873.     pp.  225,  316.     (#4.) 

Roscoe,  Henry  E.     Spectrum  Analysis.     Six  lectures  delivered  in  1868. 

With  appendixes.     London.     1872.     ($9.) 

Tyndall,  John.    Heat  as  a  Mode  of  Motion.    New  York.    1865.  pp.  480. 

($2.50.) 

Sprague,  John  T.     Electricity.     Its  Theory,  Sources  and  Application. 
London.     1875.     pp.  384. 

Barnard,  Frederick  A.  P.     The  Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Mea- 
sures.    New  York.     1872.     pp.  194.     (#3.) 

Davies,  Charles.    The  Metric  System  considered  with  reference  to  its  in- 
troduction into  the  United  States.     New  York.     1874.     pp.  349. 

(This  work  contains  a  reprint  of  John  Quincy  Adams's  Report  on  Weights  and  Mea- 
ures,  presented  in  1821.) 


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